Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Template:Short description Template:Infobox Christian denomination Template:Contains special characters Template:Oriental Orthodox sidebar The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Template:Langx)<ref name="eotc">Template:Cite web</ref> is the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. One of the few Christian churches in Africa originating before European colonization of the continent,<ref name=":0" /> the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church dates back to the Christianization of the Kingdom of Aksum in 330,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and has between 38 million and 46 million adherents in Ethiopia.<ref name="Pew Polling & Analysis">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Pew Ethiopia">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="cia2023">Template:Cite web</ref> The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims 60 million members worldwide.<ref name="wcc">Template:Cite web</ref> It is a founding member of the World Council of Churches.<ref>"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church", World Council of Churches website (accessed 2 June 2009)</ref> The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is in communion with the other Oriental Orthodox churches (the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, and the Syriac Orthodox Church).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had been administratively part of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the first half of the 4th century until 1959, when it was granted autocephaly with its own patriarch by Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Tewahedo (Template:Langx täwaḥədo) is a Geʽez word meaning "united as one." This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in Miaphysitism, meaning one perfectly unified nature of Christ; i.e., a complete union of the divine and human natures into one nature is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of mankind, as opposed to the "two natures of Christ" belief commonly held by the Latin and Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran, and most other Protestant churches. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a miaphysite Christological view followed by Cyril of Alexandria, the leading protagonist in the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries, who advocated "Template:Transliteration", or "one (mia) nature of the Word of God incarnate" (Template:Lang) and a hypostatic union (Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration).<ref name="Shenouda1999">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="CyrilTransPusey">Template:Cite web</ref> The distinction of this stance was that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that one nature is of the two natures, divine and human, and retains all the characteristics of both after the union.
Miaphysitism holds that in the one person of Jesus Christ, divinity and humanity are united in one (μία, mia) nature (φύσις - "physis") without separation, without confusion, without alteration and without mixing where Christ is consubstantial with God the Father.<ref>The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity by Ken Parry 2009 Template:ISBN page 88 [1]</ref> Around 500 bishops in the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem refused to accept the dyophysitism (two natures) doctrine decreed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, an incident that resulted in the second major split in the main body of the Catholic-Orthodox Church in the Roman Empire.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Name
Template:More citations needed section Tewahedo (Template:Langx täwaḥədo) is a Geʽez word meaning "being made one" or "unified" (see also the Arabic word Tawhid). This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one composite unified nature of Christ; i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. This is in contrast to the "two natures of Christ" belief (unmixed, but unseparated divine and human natures, called the hypostatic union) which is held by the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are known as "non-Chalcedonian", and, sometimes by outsiders as "monophysite" (meaning "One Single Nature", in allusion to Jesus Christ). However, these churches themselves describe their Christology as miaphysite,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn meaning "one united nature" about Jesus (the Greek equivalent of "Tewahedo").
History
Origins
John Chrysostom speaks of the "Ethiopians present in Jerusalem" as being able to understand the preaching of Saint Peter described in Acts 2:38.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Possible missions of some of the Apostles in the lands now called Ethiopia are also reported as early as the 4th century. Socrates of Constantinople includes Ethiopia in his list as one of the regions preached by Matthew the Apostle,<ref>Socrates of Constantinople, Sozomen, Theodoret. Historia Ecclesiastica. p. 57.</ref> where a specific mention of "Ethiopia south of the Caspian Sea" can be confirmed in some traditions such as the Roman Catholic Church among others.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Ethiopian Church tradition tells that Bartholomew accompanied Matthew in a mission which lasted for at least three months. These missions are depicted in paintings by Francesco Trevisan (1650–1740) and Marco Benefial (1688–1764) in the Church of St. Matthew in Pisa.<ref name="ReferenceA">Meskel and the Ethiopians. EOTC Publication Committee, September 2015</ref>
The earliest account of an Ethiopian converted to the faith in the New Testament books is a royal official baptized by Philip the Evangelist (distinct from Philip the Apostle), one of the Seven Deacons (Acts 8:26–27):
Template:Blockquote The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from the Book of Isaiah that the Ethiopian was reading. After Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring to Jesus Christ, the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. The Ethiopic version of this verse reads "Hendeke" (ህንደኬ); Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c. 42 to 52. Where the possibility of gospel missions by the Ethiopian eunuch cannot be directly inferred from the Books of the New Testament, Irenaeus of Lyons around 180 AD writes that "Simon Backos" preached the good news in his homeland outlining also the theme of his preaching as being the coming in flesh of God that "was preached to you all before."<ref>Irenaeus of Lyons, "Adversus haereses" III. 12. 8</ref> The same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such as Eusebius of Caesarea<ref>Eusebius Pamphilius, Church History</ref> and Origen of Alexandria.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Early Christianity became the established church of the Ethiopian Axumite Kingdom under king Ezana in the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known by the local population in Ethiopia as "Selama, Kesaté Birhan" ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptized Emperor Ezana. Frumentius is also believed to have established the first monastery in Ethiopia, named Dabba Selama after him. In 2016, archaeologists excavated a 4th-century AD basilica (radio-carbon dated) in northeastern Ethiopia at a site called Beta Samati. This is the earliest known physical evidence of a church in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Middle Ages
Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Nubia, until Al Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce the observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout the Middle Ages.Template:Sfn In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yaqob, a religious discussion between Giyorgis and a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to the Vatican.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
During the Middle Ages, the Ethiopian Church also witnessed the rise of influential monastic movements that challenged established religious and political norms. Abba Ewostatewos founded the so-called Ewostathian movement, which emphasized strict Sabbath observance and monastic independence, leading to tensions with the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the Coptic Orthodox Church.<ref>Getatchew Haile, “The Monastic Reform of Abba Ewostatewos,” Journal of Ethiopian Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, 1970, pp. 29–50.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp. 209–232.</ref><ref>Paolo Marrassini, “Ewostatewos,” in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), pp. 429–431.</ref><ref>Steven Kaplan, The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984), pp. 98–103.</ref> However, in the mid-15th century, his disciples secured recognition from the Alexandrian patriarchate, and the practice of observing both Saturday and Sunday as Sabbaths was officially accepted in Ethiopia.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527, pp. 243–247.</ref><ref>Getatchew Haile, “The Ethiopian Church and Its Leadership: The Struggle for Independence,” Church History, vol. 44, no. 3, 1975, pp. 283–297.</ref> A century later, Abba Estifanos of Gwendagwende led the Stephanite movement, which rejected veneration of the cross and royal authority over the Church, provoking harsh persecution under Emperor Zara Yaqob.<ref>Bairu Tafla, “Estifanos, Abba,” in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), pp. 392–393.</ref><ref>Habtemichael Kidane, “The Stephanite Movement and Its Theological Significance,” Aethiopica 13 (2010): 157–176.</ref><ref>Getatchew Haile, “The Acts of Abba Estifanos of Gwendagwende: The Struggle for Faith and Freedom in Fifteenth Century Ethiopia,” Analecta Bollandiana 93 (1975): 333–368.</ref><ref>Steven Kaplan, The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984), pp. 113–128.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527, pp. 269–278.</ref> Beyond doctrinal disagreements, the Stephanites articulated a radical critique of imperial authority and the sacralization of kingship, which some scholars interpret as an early Ethiopian form of religious dissent.<ref>Girma Getahun, “Abba Estifanos and the Stephanites: Resistance to Imperial Power in Fifteenth-Century Ethiopia,” Journal of Religion in Africa 27, no. 4 (1997): 403–425.</ref><ref>Getatchew Haile, “The Persecution of Abba Estifanos and His Disciples,” Analecta Bollandiana 94 (1976): 311–345.</ref> These currents illustrate the diversity of theological and ecclesiastical debates within Ethiopian Christianity during the medieval period.
Jesuit interim
The period of Jesuit influence, which broke the connection with Egypt, began a new chapter in church history. The initiative in Roman Catholic missions to Ethiopia was taken not by Rome, but by Portugal, in the course of a conflict with the Muslim Ottoman Empire and the Sultanate of Adal for the command of the trade route to India via the Red Sea.Template:Sfn
In 1507, Mateus, or Matthew, an Armenian, had been sent as an Ethiopian envoy to Portugal. In 1520, an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia. An account of the Portuguese mission, which lasted for several years, was written by Francisco Álvares, its chaplain.Template:Sfn
Later, Ignatius Loyola wished to take up the task of conversion, but was forbidden to do so. Instead, the pope sent out João Nunes Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, with Andrés de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys went to Ethiopia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved under Emperor Susenyos I, but not until 1624 did the Emperor make formal submission to the pope.Template:Sfn Susenyos made Roman Catholicism the official state religion but was met with heavy resistance by his subjects and by the authorities of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and eventually had to abdicate in 1632 in favour of his son, Fasilides, who promptly restored Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. He then in 1633 expelled the Jesuits, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered that all Jesuit books (the Books of the Franks) be burned.Template:Citation needed
Influence on the Reformation
David Daniels has suggested that the Ethiopian Church has had a stronger impact on the Reformation than most scholars acknowledge. For Martin Luther, who spearheaded the Reformation, Daniels says "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther's emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles".<ref name = "Daniels2017">Template:Cite web</ref> According to Daniels, Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion under both kinds, vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy" and these practices became customary in the Lutheran churches. The Ethiopian church also rejected papal supremacy, purgatory and indulgences, which the Lutherans disagreed with, and thus for Luther, the Ethiopian church was the "true forerunner of Protestantism".<ref name="Daniels2017" /> Luther believed that the Ethiopian church kept true apostolic practices which the Lutherans would adopt through reading the scriptures.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 1534, a cleric of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Michael the Deacon, met with Martin Luther and affirmed the Augsburg Confession, saying "This is a good creed, that is, faith".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name= "Daniels2017" /> In addition, Martin Luther stated that the Lutheran Mass agreed with that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.<ref name= "Daniels2017" /> As a result, Luther invited the Ethiopian church and Michael to full fellowship.<ref name= "Daniels2017" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Recent history
In modern times, the Ethiopian Church has experienced a series of developments. The 19th century witnessed the publication of an Amharic translation of the Bible. Largely the work of Abu Rumi over ten years in Cairo, this version, with some changes, held sway until Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a new translation which appeared in 1960/1.<ref>Edward Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible (Oxford: British Academy, 1988), p. 66</ref> Haile Selassie also played a prominent role in further reforms of the church, which included encouraging the distribution of Abu Rumi's translation throughout Ethiopia,<ref>Margary Perham, The Government of Ethiopia, second edition (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), pp. 121f</ref> as well as his promotion of improved education of clergy, a significant step in the Emperor's effort being the founding of the Theological College of the Holy Trinity Church in December 1944.<ref>Perham, Government of Ethiopia, p. 132</ref> A third development came after Haile Selassie's restoration to Ethiopia, when he issued, on 30 November, Decree Number 2 of 1942, a new law reforming the church. The primary objectives of this decree were to put the finances of the church in order, to create a central fund for its activities, and to set forth requirements for the appointment of clergy—which had been fairly lax until then.<ref>Perham, Government of Ethiopia, pp. 130</ref>
The Coptic and Ethiopian churches reached an agreement on 13 July 1948, that led to autocephaly for the Ethiopian Church. Five bishops were immediately consecrated by the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, empowered to elect a new patriarch for their church, and the successor to Qerellos IV would have the power to consecrate new bishops.<ref>Discussed in fuller detail by Perham, Government of Ethiopia, pp. 126–130</ref> This promotion was completed when Coptic Orthodox Pope Joseph II consecrated an Ethiopian-born Archbishop, Abuna Basilios, 14 January 1951. Then in 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.
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Basilios died in 1970, and was succeeded that year by Tewophilos. With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was disestablished as the state church. The new Marxist government began nationalizing property (including land) owned by the church. Tewophilos was arrested in 1976 by the Marxist Derg military junta, and secretly executed in 1979. The government ordered the church to elect a new Patriarch, and Takla Haymanot was enthroned. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Tekle Haymanot on the grounds that the Synod of the Ethiopian Church had not removed Tewophilos and that the government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other. Formal relations between the two churches resumed on July 13, 2007.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Tekla Haymanot proved to be less accommodating to the Derg regime than it had expected, so when the patriarch died in 1988, a new patriarch with closer ties to the regime was sought. The Archbishop of Gondar, a member of the Derg-era Ethiopian Parliament, was elected and enthroned as Abuna Merkorios. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, and the coming to power of the EPRDF government, Merkorios abdicated under public pressure. The church then elected a new Patriarch, Paulos, in 1992 who was recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria. The former Merkorios then fled abroad, and announced from exile that his abdication had been made under duress and thus he was still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Several bishops also went into exile and formed a break-away alternate synod.<ref name= "nyt1992-09-22">Template:Cite news</ref> The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on 28 September 1993 following ratification by Coptic church Patriarch Shenouda III, but the two remain in full communion. This split drew criticism from those that saw it as a disintegration of Ethiopia's spiritual heritage.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
There are many Ethiopian Orthodox churches located throughout the United States and other countries to which Ethiopians have migrated (Archbishop Yesehaq 1997).
Patriarch Paulos died on 16 August 2012. On 28 February 2013, a college of electors assembled in Addis Ababa and elected Mathias to be the 6th Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.<ref name= "bbc2013-03-01">Template:Cite web</ref>
On 25 July 2018, delegates from the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and those in the United States, declared reunification in Washington, D.C. Declaring the end of a 26-year-old schism, the church announced that it acknowledges two Patriarchs, Merkorios, Fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia and Mathias I, Sixth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklehaimanot.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> After the reunification of the church fathers Abune Merkorios, the fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia died on 3 March 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
On 7 May 2021, a group of Tigrayan priests and bishops announced the secession of the regional clergy from the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC) to establish the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church (TOTC). The split was driven by grievances over the EOTC holy synod’s perceived alignment with the federal government during the Tigray War (2020–2022), which many Tigrayans accused of legitimizing state violence and remaining silent over atrocities committed against civilians.<ref>Giulia Paravicini, “Tigrayan Orthodox Church breaks away from Ethiopia’s main synod,” Reuters, 9 May 2023.</ref><ref name="Shira Rubin 2023">Shira Rubin, “Divisions in Ethiopia’s ancient church pose new threat to stability,” The Washington Post, 12 Apr. 2023.</ref><ref>“Ethiopia: Nationalism tears Orthodox Church apart,” The Africa Report, 14 Feb 2024.</ref> The move was also justified by the extensive destruction of churches and monasteries in Tigray during the conflict, often at the hands of Eritrean troops allied with the Ethiopian army.<ref>“Tigrayan Orthodox Church breaks away from Ethiopia’s main synod,” Reuters, 9 May 2023.</ref><ref>“The Tigray war and the schism in the Ethiopian Orthodox church,” Geeska, 8 Dec 2024.</ref><ref>“The cause and context of the crisis of schism in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC),” Religion Unplugged, 4 Feb 2023.</ref><ref>“War crimes and rebel bishops: Christmas celebrations marred by bitter split in Ethiopia’s ancient church,” The Guardian, 6 Jan 2025.</ref> Massacres of civilians around Axum’s Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, bombings of sites such as the 6th-century Debre Damo monastery, and the widespread pillage of sacred objects—including manuscripts, icons, and golden crosses—were documented by international human rights groups.<ref>Amnesty International, “Eritrean troops massacre of hundreds of Axum civilians may amount to a crime against humanity,” 26 Feb. 2021.</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch & Amnesty International, “’We Will Erase You from This Land’: Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing in Ethiopia’s Western Tigray Zone,” 6 Apr. 2022.</ref><ref>Martin Plaut, “Monastery ‘bombed and looted’ in Ethiopian war (Debre Damo),” The Times via Eritrea Hub, 15 Feb. 2021.</ref><ref>Jason Burke, “Fabled Ark could be among ancient treasures in danger in Ethiopia’s deadly war,” The Guardian, 24 Jan. 2021.</ref><ref>African Arguments, “Tigray: why are soldiers attacking religious heritage sites?” 11 Mar. 2021.</ref> Many stolen treasures were reportedly transported into Eritrea, reinforcing accusations that the war was accompanied by cultural erasure.<ref>The Guardian, “Tigray conflict: Eritrean soldiers accused of looting and massacres,” 5 Mar. 2021.</ref>
Significantly, Patriarch Abune Mathias, the current Patriarch who is himself a Tigrayan, broke ranks with the Holy Synod by publicly denouncing the conflict as a “genocide” against Tigrayans, lamenting that his attempts to issue statements had been censored by church authorities in Addis Ababa.<ref>Giulia Paravicini, “Ethiopian Orthodox Church head says genocide is taking place in Tigray,” Reuters, 9 May 2021.</ref><ref>Voice of America, “Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch Blasts ‘Genocide’ in Tigray,” 9 May 2021.</ref> For the Tigrayan clergy, the silence—or in some cases, the complicity—of the Synod in the face of massacres, looting, and the destruction of holy sites contrasted sharply with the Patriarch’s testimony, further underscoring the need for an autonomous church that could defend the religious and cultural heritage of the Tigrayan people.<ref name="Shira Rubin 2023"/>
On 22 January 2023, an attempt to overthrow Abune Mathias was failed following a secret formation of new 26-made bishop Synod led by Abune Sawiros in Oromia Region diocese, such as in Haro Beale Wold Church in Woliso, and nine bishops of diocese outside the region. The Patriarchate called it an "illegal appointment", where Abune Mathias decried it as "great event that has targeted the church".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> After not apologising for the illegal ordination, three Archbishops were excommunicated by the Holy Synod on 26 January.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 31 January 2023, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed convened a discussion surrounding the incident where he responded that he was ready to resolve the conflict. The speech led backlash from the Holy Synod and accused his government of meddling in the Church in reference to separation of church and state in the Article 11 of the FDRE Constitution.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
On 4 February, three people were reportedly killed in Shashemene by the Oromia Special Forces. According Tewahedo Media Center (TMC), two Orthodox youth were killed and four others were injured by the Oromo Special Forces. Abune Henok, Archbishop of Addis Ababa Diocese described it as "shameful and heart-wrenching".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In response to grievance, numerous celebrities expressed their solidarity to the Church via social media and other platforms and donned black clothing during three-days Fast of Nineveh.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 9 February, the government imposed restrictions on social sites targeted to Facebook, Messenger, Telegram and TikTok.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On the next day, the delegation of Synod held an urgent meeting with Abiy at his office, which resulted in condemnation of the proclaimed Oromia Synod from Abiy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 12 February, a nationwide protest was postponed. Abune Petros, the Secretary of the Holy Synod announced that the demonstration would be postponed following peaceful talks with the Prime Minister and a government agreement to solve the problem.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 15 February, the Church reached an agreement with the illegally ordinated synod.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The government lifted the internet ban after five months on 17 July.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Traditions
The faith and practice of Orthodox Ethiopian Christians include elements from Miaphysite Christianity as it has developed in Ethiopia over the centuries. Christian beliefs include belief in God (in Geʽez / Amharic, ′Egziabeher, lit. "Lord of the Universe"), veneration of the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints, besides others. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church itself, there are no non-Christian elements in the religion other than those from the Old Testament, or Həggä 'Orät (ሕገ ኦሪት),Template:Citation needed to which are added those from the New Testament, or Həggä Wongel (ሕገ ወንጌል).<ref>EOTC Doctrine Template:Webarchive</ref> A hierarchy of K'ədusan ቅዱሳንTemplate:Citation needed (angelic messengers and saints) conveys the prayers of the faithful to God and carries out the divine will, so when Ethiopian Christians are in difficulty, they appeal to them as well as to God. In more formal and regular rituals, priests communicate on behalf of the community, and only priests may enter the inner sanctum of the usually circular or octagonal church where the tabot ("ark") dedicated to the church's patron saint is housed.<ref name="worship">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Unreliable source? On important religious holidays, the tabot is carried on the head of a priest and escorted in procession outside the church. It is the tabot, not the church, which is consecrated. At many services, most parish members remain in the outer ring, where debteras sing hymns and dance.<ref name="cs">Turner, John W. "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: Faith and practices". A Country Study: Ethiopia (Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, eds.) Library of Congress Federal Research Division (1991). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.[2].</ref>
The Eucharist is given only to those who feel pure, have fasted regularly, and have, in general, properly conducted themselves.<ref name="worship" /> In practice, communion is mainly limited to young children and the elderly; those who are at a sexually active age or who have sexual desires generally do not receive the Eucharist.Template:Citation needed Worshipers receiving communion may enter the middle ring of the church to do so.<ref name="worship" />
The Ethiopian Orthodox church is Trinitarian,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> maintaining the Orthodox teaching, formalised at the council of Nicea, that God is united in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This concept is known as səllase (ሥላሴ),Template:Citation needed Geʽez for "Trinity".
Daily services constitute only a small part of an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian's religious observance. Several holy days require prolonged services, singing and dancing, and feasting.
Fast days
An important religious requirement, however, is the keeping of fast days, during which adherents abstain from consuming meat and animal products, and refrain from sexual activity.<ref name="worship" /><ref name="Molvaer">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="dw2017-03-22">Template:Cite news</ref> The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has 250 fasting days, 180 of which are obligatory for lay people, not just monks and priests, when vegan food is eaten by the faithful. During the 40-day Advent fast, only one vegan meal is allowed per day.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Abiy-Tsome or Hudadi [ሁዳዴ/ዓብይ ጾም] (Great Lent)-55 days prior to Easter (Fasika).<ref name="nenewe">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="arega">Template:Cite web</ref> This fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal (ጾመ ህርቃል), eight days commemorating Heraclius; Tsome Arba (ጾመ አርባ), forty days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat (ጾመ ሕማማት), seven days commemorating Holy Week.<ref name="nenewe" /><ref name="arega" /><ref name="keraneyo-medhanealem">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Fast of the Apostles-10–40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received the Holy Spirit. It begins after Pentecost.
- Tsome Dihnet (ጾመ ድህነት)- which is on Wednesdays in commemoration of the plot organized to kill Jesus Christ by Caiaphas and the members of the house of the high priest and Fridays in commemoration of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ (starts on Wednesday after Pentecost and spans up to Easter, in other words all Wednesdays and Fridays except during 50 days after Easter).<ref name="worship" />
- The fast of Dormition of Mother of God- it is observed for 16 days.
- The fast of the prophets-The fast preceding Christmas, 40 days (Advent). It begins with Sibket on 15th Hedar and ends on Christmas Eve with the feast of Gena and the 29th of Tahsas and 28th if the year is preceded by leap year.
- The Fast of Nineveh-commemorating the preaching of Jonah. It comes on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday of the third week before Lent.
- Gahad Fast-Timkat (Epiphany)-fast on the eve of Epiphany.
In addition to standard holy days, most Christians observe many saints' days. A man might give a small feast on his personal saint's day. The local voluntary association (called the maheber) connected with each church honours its patron saint with a special service and a feast two or three times a year.<ref name=cs/>
Monasticism
Exorcism
Priests intervene and perform exorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons or buda. According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia report having experienced or witnessed an exorcism.<ref name="bbc2010-04-15">Template:Cite news</ref> Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.<ref name="geleta">Geleta, Amsalu Tadesse. "Case Study: Demonization and the Practice of Exorcism in Ethiopian Churches Template:Webarchive". Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, Nairobi, August 2000.</ref> Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.<ref name="geleta" /> Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.<ref name="geleta" /> Superhuman strength—such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts—along with glossolalia are observed in the afflicted.<ref name="geleta" /> Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:
It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counsellor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.<ref name="geleta" />
The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."<ref name="geleta" />
Biblical canon
Template:MainThe Old Testament Books:
- Genesis
- Exodus
- Leviticus
- Numbers
- Deuteronomy
- Joshua
- Judges
- Ruth
- 1st & 2nd Samuel
- 1st & 2nd Kings
- 1st Chronicles
- 2nd Chronicles (incl. Prayer of Manasseh)
- Jubilees
- Enoch
- 1st & 2nd Esdras
- 3rd Esdras & Ezra Sutuel
- Tobit
- Judith
- Esther (with additions)
- 1st Meqabyan(Maccabees)
- 2nd & 3rd Meqabyan
- Josippon
- Job
- Psalms (incl. Psalm 151)
- Proverbs
- Reproof
- Ecclesiastes
- Song of Solomon
- Wisdom of Solomon
- Ecclesiasticus
- Isaiah
- Jeremiah (incl. Lamentations, 1st Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, & 4th Baruch)
- Ezekiel
- Daniel (with additions, incl. Susanna & Bel and the Dragon)
- Hosea
- Joel
- Amos
- Obadiah
- Jonah
- Micah
- Nahum
- Habakkuk
- Zephaniah
- Haggai
- Zechariah
- Malachi
The New Testament Books:
- Matthew
- Mark
- Luke
- John
- Acts
- Romans
- 1st Corinthians
- 2nd Corinthians
- Galatians
- Ephesians
- Philippians
- Colossians
- 1st Thessalonians
- 2nd Thessalonians
- 1st Timothy
- 2nd Timothy
- Titus
- Philemon
- Hebrews
- James
- 1st Peter
- 2nd Peter
- 1st John
- 2nd John
- 3rd John
- Jude
- Revelation
- 1st Sinodos
- 2nd Sinodos
- 3rd Sinodos
- 4th Sinodos
- 1st Covenant
- 2nd Covenant
- Ethiopic Clement
- Didascalia
Language
The divine services of the Ethiopian Church are celebrated in Geʽez, which has been the liturgical language of the church at least since the arrival of the Nine Saints (Pantelewon, Gerima (Isaac, or Yeshaq), Aftse, Guba, Alef, Yem’ata, Liqanos, and Sehma), who are believed to have fled persecution by the Byzantine Empire after the Council of Chalcedon (451).<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 23</ref> The Greek Septuagint was the version of the Old Testament originally translated into Ge'ez, but later revisions show clear evidence of the use of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic sources. The first translation into a modern vernacular was done in the 19th century by a man usually known as Abu Rumi (died 1819). Later, Haile Selassie sponsored Amharic translations of the Ge'ez Scriptures during his reign (1930–1974): one in 1935 before World War II and one afterwards (1960–1961).<ref>Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible, pp. 31-72</ref> Sermons today are usually delivered in the local language.
Architecture
There are many monolithic (rock-hewn) churches in Ethiopia, most famously eleven churches at Lalibela. Besides these, two main types of architecture are found—one basilican, the other native. The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion at Axum is an example of the basilican design, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruin. These examples show the influence of the architects who, in the 6th century, built the basilicas at Sanʻāʼ and elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula. There are two forms of native churches: one oblong, traditionally found in Tigray; the other circular, traditionally found in Amhara and Shewa (though either style may be found elsewhere). In both forms, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre, and the arrangements are based on Jewish tradition. Walls and ceilings are adorned with frescoes. A courtyard, circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. Modern Ethiopian churches may incorporate the basilican or native styles and use contemporary construction techniques and materials. In rural areas, the church and outer court are often thatched, with mud-built walls. The church buildings are typically surrounded by a forested area, acting as a reservoir of biodiversity in otherwise de-forested parts of the country.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=emergence>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn
Ark of the Covenant
The Ethiopian Church claims that one of its churches, Our Lady Mary of Zion, is host to the original Ark of the Covenant that Moses carried with the Israelites during the Exodus. Only one priest is allowed into the building where the Ark is located, ostensibly due to biblical warnings of danger. As a result, international scholars doubt that the original Ark is truly there.Template:Citation needed
Throughout Ethiopia, Orthodox churches are not considered churches until the local bishop gives them a tabot, a replica of the original Ark of the Covenant.<ref name="E_Af1868-1001-21">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="lisantewahdo">Template:Cite web</ref> The tabot is at least six inches (15 cm) square, and it is made of either alabaster, marble, or wood (see acacia). It is always kept in ornate coverings on the altar.<ref name="E_Af1868-1001-21" /> Only priests are allowed to see or touch the tabot.<ref name="lisantewahdo" /><ref name="mk-2023">Template:Cite web</ref> In an elaborate procession, the tabot is carried around the outside of the church amid joyful song on the feast day of that particular church's namesake.<ref name="E_Af1868-1001-21" /> On the great Feast of T'imk'et, known as Epiphany or Theophany in Europe, a group of churches send their tabot to celebrate the occasion at a common location where a pool of water or a river is to be found.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Similarities to Judaism and Islam
The Ethiopian Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other churches. Women are prohibited from entering the church temple during menstruation;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (or shash) while in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11. As with Orthodox synagogues, men and women sit separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar).<ref name="Hable1997">Template:Cite book</ref> Mandated hair coverings for women and separation of the sexes in churches is uncommon in other Christian traditions; but this is the case in some sects of Islam and Judaism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Before praying, the Ethiopian Orthodox remove their shoes in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.<ref name="Kosloski2017">Template:Cite web</ref> Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church temple,<ref name="Hable1997" /> in accordance with Exodus 3:5 (in which Moses, while viewing the burning bush, was commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is known to observe the seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday, or the lesser Sabbath), in addition to the Lord's Day (Sunday, or the Christian Sabbath),<ref name="Binns2016">Template:Cite book</ref> recognizing both to be holy days of joy, prayer, and contemplation, although more emphasis, because of the Resurrection of Christ, is laid upon Sunday. While the Ethiopian Church is known for this practice, it is neither an innovation nor unique to it,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> deriving from the Apostolic Constitutions and the Apostolic Canons<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the former of which without the Apostolic Canons included is in the church's 81-book canon as the Didascalia. The nature of the Sabbath became a doctrinal dispute in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria only in the centuries leading up to the issue being rectified by Ewostatewos.<ref name="Tamrat 1972">Template:Cite book</ref> The emperor Gelawdewos in his Confession, an apologia of traditional beliefs and practices says "we do not honour it as the Jews do... but we so honour it that we celebrate thereon the Eucharist and have love-feasts, even as our Fathers the Apostles have taught us in the Didascalia".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
It is a common cultural practice for members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to undergo male circumcision and to abstain from meats deemed unclean.<ref name="Columbia_encyc_2011_circ">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="R. Peteet 2017 97–101">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This is purely done as a cultural tradition and not out of religious obligation, the liturgy explicitly stating "let us not be circumcised like the Jews. We know that He who had to fulfil the law and the prophets has already come.".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web About food, nothing is forbidden except those which were forbidden by the Apostles in the Book of Acts and their Cannons in which they said: “That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well.”.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes several kinds of hand washing and traditionally follow rituals that are similar to Jewish netilat yadayim, for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating a meal.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Ethiopian Orthodox Church observes days of ritual purification.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> People who are ritually unclean may approach the church but are not permitted to enter it; they instead stand near the church door and pray during the liturgy.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Rugare Rukuni and Erna Oliver identify the Nine Saints as Jewish Christians, and attribute the Judaic character of Ethiopian Christianity, in part, to their influence.<ref name="RukuniOliver">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp
Debtera
A debtera is an itinerant lay man trained by the Ethiopian Church to function principally as a scribe or cantor, equivalent to minor orders. These men may act as deacons or exorcists, and the role of folk healer is commonly undertaken as well. Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Music
The music of Ethiopian Orthodox Church traced back to Saint Yared, who composed Zema or "chant", which divided into three modes: Geʽez (ordinary days), Ezel (fast days and Lent) and Araray (principal feasts).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is important to Ethiopian liturgy and divided into fourteen Anaphoras, the normal use being of the Twelve Apostles. In ancient times, there were six Anaphoras used by many monasteries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Patriarch-Catholicoi, archbishops and bishops
Template:More citations needed section
- Patriarch-Catholicos
Template:Main Since 1959, when the church was granted autocephaly by Cyril VI, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Ethiopian Patriarch-Catholicos of Eritrea also carrying the title of Abuna is the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Abuna is officially known as Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklahaimanot. The incumbent head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is Mathias who acceded to this position on 27 February 2013.
- Archbishops and bishops
Ethiopia
- Mathias, Patriarch and Head of all Archbishops of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
- Zekarias, Archbishop Of West Gojjam Zone.<ref name="Technology">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Gorgorios, Archbishop Of East Shewa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Athnatios, Archbishop of South Wollo and Kemise.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Kerlos, Archbishop of North Wollo.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Kewestos, Archbishop of North Shewa (Oromia).<ref name="Technology"/>
- Merha-Kirstos, Archbishop Of Adigrat.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yonas, Former Archbishop of Afar.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Endrias, Archbishop-Head of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Scholars Council.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Estifanos, Archbishop of North Gondar, Jima and Yem Zone.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yoseph, Archbishop of Bale.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Samuel, Archbishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Ezekiel, Archbishop of Kefa, Sheka and Bench Maji, Head of St Paul Theological College.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Dioskoros, Archbishop Of Raya.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Lukas, Archbishop of Setit Humera.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Abraham, Archbishop of Bahir Dar City and North gojam.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yared, Archbishop of East Arsi.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Henok, Archbishop of the South and West Africa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Enbakom, Archbishop of the Head of Monasteries.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Kelementos, Archbishop of North Shewa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Mathewos, Archbishop of Egypt, North Africa and East Africa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Sawiros, Archbishop of South West Shewa and Sheger.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Ewstatios, Archbishop of ilu Aba Bora.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Markos, Archbishop Of Apostolic Service and Evangelical Department.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Entos, Archbishop Of West Harerge.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yohannes, Archbishop of North Gondar.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Selama, Archbishop of West Gondar.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yishak, Archbishop Of Wolayta.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Zena-markos, Archbishop Of West Arsi, Liden, Guji and Borana.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Thomas, Archbishop Of Awi Zone and Metekel.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Melketsedek, Archbishop Of Gurage.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Ermias, Archbishop Of North Wollo.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Rufael, Archbishop Of Gambela, West Wollega, East Wollega, Horo Guduru Wollega, South Sudan and Assosa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Gerima, Bishop of Gedio Amaro and Burji.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Gabriel, Bishop of West Shewa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Timoteos, Bishop Of Dawro konta.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Elsa, Bishop Of Somali.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Bertelomios, Bishop of Dire Dawa.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Ephrem, Bishop Of Buno Bedele.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Epifanios, Bishop Of East Gurage.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Nikodimos, Bishop of East Harerge.<ref name="Technology"/>
Canada
- Demetrios, archbishop of Eastern Canada.
- Mekarios, Archbishop of West Canada.<ref name="Technology"/>
Middle East
- Dimetros, Archbishop of Middle East, United Arab Emirates and Lebanon.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Nathaniel, Archbishop Of Jerusalem.<ref name="Technology"/>
South America
- Thaddaeus, Archbishop Of The Caribbean And Latin America.<ref name="Technology"/>
United States
- Fanuel, Archbishop of Washington DC and it's Surrounding.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Petros, Archbishop of New York and it's Surrounding.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Philipos, archbishop of Pennsylvania and Head of Eyesus Church in Baltimore
- Yaekob, archbishop of Georgia and its surrounding areas
- Nathaniel, Archbishop of Minnesota and Colorado.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Selama, archbishop of Ohio
- Sawiros, archbishop of Texas
- Theoplos, Archbishop of North California.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Barnabas, Archbishop of South California.<ref name="Technology"/>
Europe
- Elias, Archbishop of Nordic and Scandinavia, Greece.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Yakob, Archbishop of United Kingdom, Ireland and Far East Countries.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Heryakos, Archbishop of Italy and it's surrounding.<ref name="Technology"/>
- Diyonaseyos, Archbishop Of Germany and its Surrounding.<ref name="Technology"/>
Australia & New Zealand
- Muse, Archbishop Of Australia.<ref name="Technology"/>
Eparchies
The current eparchies of the church include:<ref>Eparchies of the Ethiopian Church (Russian)</ref>
In Ethiopia
Outside of Ethiopia
- Washington, D.C. and its surroundings.
- Jerusalem
- Middle East, United Arab Emirates and Lebanon
- Caribbean and Latin America
- New York (state) and its surroundings.
- Ohio
- Texas
- North California
- South California
- Eastern Canada
- Western Canada
- Pennsylvania
- Georgia (U.S. state) and its surroundings.
- Nordic countries, Scandinavia and Greece
- United Kingdom and Ireland
- Far East countries.
- Germany and its surroundings.
- Australia
See also
- Abuna
- Biblical law in Christianity
- Christianity and Judaism
- Christian observances of Jewish holidays
- Christianity in Ethiopia
- Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
- Ethiopian Catholic Church
- Ethiopian chant
- Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Exile
- List of abunas of Ethiopia
- List of calendar of saints in the Orthodox Tewahedo
- Oriental Orthodox Church
- Mahibere Kidusan
Further reading
References
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Bibliography
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Cite book
- Archbishop Yesehaq. 1997. The Ethiopian Tewahedo Church: An Integrally African Church. Winston-Derek Publishers.
- Template:Cite book
- Mikre-Sellassie Gebre-Amanuel. 1993. "The Bible and its canon in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church." The Bible Translator 44/1:111-123.
- Template:Cite journal
External links
- Divine Liturgy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
- Ethiopian Religions – Christianity, Islam, Judaism & Paganism
- Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church -the oldest site)
- CNEWA article by Ronald Roberson: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
- Historical Evolution of Ethiopian Anaphoras
- Abbink, J. A Bibliography on Christianity in Ethiopia. Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2003 (PDF)
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