Gulf Arabic
Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check |unknown=Template:Main other |preview=Page using Template:Infobox language with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| acceptance | agency | aiatsis | aiatsis2 | aiatsis3 | aiatsis4 | aiatsis5 | aiatsis6 | aiatsisname | aiatsisname2 | aiatsisname3 | aiatsisname4 | aiatsisname5 | aiatsisname6 | altname | ancestor | ancestor2 | ancestor3 | ancestor4 | ancestor5 | ancestor6 | ancestor7 | ancestor8 | ancestor9 | ancestor10 | ancestor11 | ancestor12 | ancestor13 | ancestor14 | ancestor15 | boxsize | coordinates | coords | created | creator | date | dateprefix | development_body | dia1 | dia2 | dia3 | dia4 | dia5 | dia6 | dia7 | dia8 | dia9 | dia10 | dia11 | dia12 | dia13 | dia14 | dia15 | dia16 | dia17 | dia18 | dia19 | dia20 | dia21 | dia22 | dia23 | dia24 | dia25 | dia26 | dia27 | dia28 | dia29 | dia30 | dia31 | dia32 | dia33 | dia34 | dia35 | dia36 | dia37 | dia38 | dia39 | dia40 | dialect_label | dialects | ELP | ELP2 | ELP3 | ELP4 | ELP5 | ELP6 | ELPname | ELPname2 | ELPname3 | ELPname4 | ELPname5 | ELPname6 | era | ethnicity | extinct | fam1 | fam2 | fam3 | fam4 | fam5 | fam6 | fam7 | fam8 | fam9 | fam10 | fam11 | fam12 | fam13 | fam14 | fam15 | family | familycolor | fontcolor | glotto | glotto2 | glotto3 | glotto4 | glotto5 | glottoname | glottoname2 | glottoname3 | glottoname4 | glottoname5 | glottopedia | glottorefname | glottorefname2 | glottorefname3 | glottorefname4 | glottorefname5 | guthrie | ietf | image | imagealt | imagecaption | imagescale | iso1 | iso1comment | iso2 | iso2b | iso2comment | iso2t | iso3 | iso3comment | iso6 | isoexception | lc1 | lc2 | lc3 | lc4 | lc5 | lc6 | lc7 | lc8 | lc9 | lc10 | lc11 | lc12 | lc13 | lc14 | lc15 | lc16 | lc17 | lc18 | lc19 | lc20 | lc21 | lc22 | lc23 | lc24 | lc25 | lc26 | lc27 | lc28 | lc29 | lc30 | lc31 | lc32 | lc33 | lc34 | lc35 | lc36 | lc37 | lc38 | lc39 | lc40 | ld1 | ld2 | ld3 | ld4 | ld5 | ld6 | ld7 | ld8 | ld9 | ld10 | ld11 | ld12 | ld13 | ld14 | ld15 | ld16 | ld17 | ld18 | ld19 | ld20 | ld21 | ld22 | ld23 | ld24 | ld25 | ld26 | ld27 | ld28 | ld29 | ld30 | ld31 | ld32 | ld33 | ld34 | ld35 | ld36 | ld37 | ld38 | ld39 | ld40 | linglist | linglist2 | linglist3 | linglist4 | linglist5 | linglist6 | lingname | lingname2 | lingname3 | lingname4 | lingname5 | lingname6 | lingua | lingua2 | lingua3 | lingua4 | lingua5 | lingua6 | lingua7 | lingua8 | lingua9 | lingua10 | linguaname | linguaname2 | linguaname3 | linguaname4 | linguaname5 | linguaname6 | linguaname7 | linguaname8 | linguaname9 | linguaname10 | listclass | liststyle | map | map2 | mapalt | mapalt2 | mapcaption | mapcaption2 | mapscale | minority | module | name | nation | nativename | notice | notice2 | official | posteriori | pronunciation | protoname | pushpin_image | pushpin_label | pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption | pushpin_mapsize | qid | ref | refname | region | revived | revived-cat | revived-category | script | setting | sign | signers | speakers | speakers_label | speakers2 | stand1 | stand2 | stand3 | stand4 | stand5 | stand6 | standards | state | states }}<templatestyles src="Template:Infobox/styles-images.css" /> Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji (Template:Lang Template:Transliteration local pronunciation: Template:IPA or Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, local pronunciation: Template:IPA) is a variety of Arabic spoken in Eastern ArabiaTemplate:Sfnp around the coasts of the Persian Gulf in Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, southern Iraq,<ref>Arabic, Gulf Spoken – A Language of Iraq Ethnologue</ref> eastern Saudi Arabia, northern Oman, and by some Iranian Arabs.<ref>Languages of Iran Ethnologue</ref>
Gulf Arabic can be defined as a set of closely related and more-or-less mutually intelligible varieties that form a dialect continuum, with the level of mutual intelligibility between any two varieties largely depending on the distance between them. Similar to other varieties, Gulf Arabic is not completely mutually intelligible with varieties spoken outside the Gulf.Template:Sfnp The specific dialects differ in vocabulary, grammar and accent. There are considerable differences between, for instance, Kuwaiti Arabic and the dialects of Qatar and the UAE, especially in pronunciation, that may hinder mutual intelligibility.Template:Sfnp The Gulf has two major dialect types that differ phonologically and morphologically, typically referred to as badawī 'Bedouin' and ḥadarī 'sedentary', which in simpler terms mean "desert dweller" and "city dweller". The differences mark important cultural differences between those who historically practiced pastoralism and those who were sedentary.Template:Sfnp
Gulf varieties' closest related relatives are other dialects native to the Arabian Peninsula, i.e. Najdi Arabic, Mesopotamian Arabic and Bahrani Arabic.Template:Sfnp<ref name=per /> Although spoken over much of Saudi Arabia's area, Gulf Arabic is not the native tongue of most Saudis, as the majority of them do not live in Eastern Arabia.Template:Sfnp There are some 200,000 Gulf Arabic speakers in the country, out of a population of over 30 million, mostly in the aforementioned Eastern Province.Template:Sfnp<ref name=per>Languages of Saudi Arabia Ethnologue</ref>
Name
The dialect's full name Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang local pronunciation: Template:IPA) can be translated as 'the dialect of the gulf'. However, it is most commonly referred to as Khaliji (Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:IPA), in which the noun Template:Lang (Template:IPA; Template:Transliteration) has been suffixed with the Nisba, literally meaning 'of the bay' or 'of the gulf'.Template:Sfnp
Phonology
Consonants
Phonetic notes:
- Template:IPA only occurs in loanwords;Template:Sfnp the non-native letter Template:Angbr, or its native counterpart Template:IPA Template:Angbr, are used to denote this sound e.g.: piyāḷah (Template:Lang or Template:Lang Template:IPA, 'small glass'), from Persian.Template:Citation needed
- A feature that distinguishes Gulf Arabic dialects from other Arabic varieties is the retention of the dental fricatives Template:IPA and Template:IPA, which in many other dialects merged with other sounds; similarly, the reflex of the merger of classical *Template:IPA Template:Angbr and *Template:IPA Template:Angbr is often Template:IPA in some dialects but is a fricative (either Template:IPA or Template:IPA) in Gulf dialects.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp It shares this feature with most Peninsular and Mesopotamian dialects.Template:Citation needed
- Template:IPA Template:Angbr has merged to Template:IPA Template:Angbr.
- Historically, Template:IPA became Template:IPA in Gulf Arabic. Due to influence from MSA, the sound was reintroduced in a handful of classicisms.Template:Sfnp A number of speakers realize this restricted phoneme as a voiced uvular stop;Template:Sfnp these same speakers have post-velar or uvular realizations of Template:IPA and Template:IPA (Template:IPA and Template:IPA, respectively).Template:Sfnp For such speakers, Template:IPA and the Template:IPA are in free variation while other speakers distinguish Template:IPA from Template:IPA. Thus Template:Lang Template:IPA may be realized as Template:IPA or Template:IPA for such speakers.Template:Sfnp
- The emphatic consonants Template:IPA are variably described in the literature as having secondary velarization or pharyngealization. Other emphatic consonants can be found, but these are the result of a process that spreads the velarization/pharyngealization of these sounds on surrounding consonants. E.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('championship') Template:IPA('championship').Template:Sfnp
Allophony
Template:IPA and Template:IPA are often palatalized when occurring before front vowels unless the following consonant is emphatic. The actual realization is in free variation, and can be Template:IPA or, more commonly, Template:IPA.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Speakers who exhibit variation between Template:IPA and Template:IPA do so in words derived from historical Template:IPA (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'opposite'); Template:IPA is a contemporary reflex of historical Template:IPA and so there are also sets of words where Template:IPA and Template:IPA appear in free variation (e.g. (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'neighbor').Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Voiced stops tend to devoice in utterance-final position, especially as the final element in clusters, e.g. Template:Lang ('dog') Template:IPA Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
A notable aspect of Gulf Arabic is the different realization of a number of phonemes inherited from Classical Arabic. These differences are the result, in part, of natural linguistic changes over time. After these changes occurred, the original sounds (or close approximations to them) were reintroduced as a result of contact with other dialects, as well as through influence of Modern Standard Arabic as a language of media, government, and religion. For many of these sounds, speakers exhibit free variation between the MSA form and the colloquial form.Template:Sfnp The following table provides a rough outline of these differences:
| Letter | MSA pronunciation | Khaliji varieties | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Template:IPAslink | Template:IPAblink or Template:IPA | mōy or mōj (Template:Lang Template:IPA or Template:IPA, 'wave'); masyid or masjid (Template:Lang Template:IPA or Template:IPA, 'mosque') |
Changes are optional, although jim (Template:Lang) never changes to Template:IPAblink in recent loanwords from MSA.Template:Sfnp |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPAslink | Template:IPAslink (in Classical Arabic words); Template:IPAblink and, when followed by a front vowel (Template:IPA, Template:IPA Template:IPA, Template:IPA or Template:IPA) Template:IPA | jiddām (Template:Lang Template:IPA , 'in front of'); sharji (Template:Lang Template:IPA 'eastern') |
Many Literary Arabic loanwords preserve the Template:IPA sound, but optionally use Template:IPA. By Persian influence, extremely rarely the qaf (Template:Lang) changes to ghayn (Template:Lang) Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | Template:IPA, Template:IPA | qannā (Template:Lang Template:IPA, 'to sing') | Ghayn occasionally changes to Template:IPA or Template:IPA by Persian influence.Template:Sfnp |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPAslink | Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAblink if preceded or followed by a front vowel or if 2nd person feminine singular suffixed/object pronoun | ubūch (Template:Lang Template:IPA; 'your [f.sg.] father') | This change is optional, but encountered with more often when the kaf (Template:Lang) is used to denote the 2nd person feminine singular suffixed/object pronoun.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPAslink | Template:IPAblink | ẓāʼ (Template:Lang Template:IPA, 'to lose') | Ẓāʼ (Template:Lang) and Ḍad (Template:Lang) are not distinguished by pronunciation, as the Gulf dialects lack the emphatic Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp However, they retain their orthographic distinction.Template:Sfnp |
Vowels
Gulf Arabic has five long vowels and three or four short monophthongs. Two recent studies point to a lack of phonemic contrast between [i] and [u], and Shockley (2020) argues that backness is not phonemically contrastive in short vowels.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The most recent grammar of Gulf Arabic similarly points to a reduced central vowel [ə] as a frequent reflex of all short vowels.Template:Sfnp
| Front | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | |
| Close | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link |
| Mid | Template:IPA link | (Template:IPA link) | Template:IPA link | |
| Open | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
Allophony
Regional variations in vowel pronunciation is considerable, particularly outside of educated speech. Unless otherwise noted, the following are major allophonic variants shared across the entire Gulf region.
Front vowels
In the context of emphatic consonants, long Template:IPA and Template:IPA exhibit centralized vowel onglides and offglides.Template:Sfnp For example:
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('mud') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('summer') → Template:IPA .
- Template:IPA ('she menstruates') → Template:IPA.
Similarly, the normal realization of short Template:IPA is Template:IPA except in final position, where it is Template:IPA; when adjacent to emphatic, uvular, or bilabial consonants, Template:IPA is centralized to Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA ('my daughter') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('book') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA ('go! [f]') → Template:IPA.
When between two emphatic, uvular, or bilabial consonants, Template:IPA is fully backed to Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('medicine') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('turn over!') → Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
The normal realization of short Template:IPA is a front Template:IPA;Template:Sfnp when adjacent to dorsal and pharyngeal consonants, the normal realization is a back Template:IPA; when adjacent to emphatic consonants (and, for some speakers, bilabial consonants), the realization is a back and rounded Template:IPA:Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('Bedouin') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('after') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('coffee') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('row') → Template:IPA.
When both a dorsal/pharyngeal consonant and emphatic consonant are adjacent to a vowel, the realization is Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
For Template:IPA, the pattern is largely the same except that, when adjacent to dorsal/pharyngeal consonants, the realization is Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA ('he fasted') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA ('he said') → Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA Template:Lang ('health') → Template:IPA.
Word-finally, long Template:IPA is shortened and subjected to the same phonological rules as short Template:IPA. This shortening can lead to alternations based on morphological conditioning, e.g. Template:IPA ('lunch') vs. Template:IPA ('your lunch').Template:Sfnp
Back vowels
Template:IPA is normally realized as Template:IPA. Similarly, Template:IPA is realized Template:IPA except when unstressed, in which case it is reduced to Template:IPA if it is not deleted altogether (e.g. Template:IPA → Template:IPA or Template:IPA 'houses').Template:Sfnp
The short vowel phoneme Template:IPA occurs rarely as a variant of the diphthong Template:IPA in a handful of words (e.g. لو Template:IPA 'if').Template:Sfnp
Morphology
Similarly to other Arabic varieties, Gulf Arabic has lost much of the case inflection of Classical Arabic. Possession is marked with the particles Template:IPA and Template:IPA, which are attached to possessive enclitics.Template:Sfnp
Pronouns
Gulf Arabic has 10 personal pronouns.Template:Sfnp The conservative dialect has preserved the gender differentiation of the 2nd and 3rd person in the plural forms, whereas dual forms have not survived. The following table bears the generally most common pronouns:
| Person | Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | ānā (Template:Lang) | niḥin (Template:Lang) | |
| 2nd | masculine | inta (Template:Lang) | intum (Template:Lang) |
| feminine | inti (Template:Lang) | intinTemplate:Ref (Template:Lang) | |
| 3rd | masculine | huwa (Template:Lang) | hum (Template:Lang) |
| feminine | hiya (Template:Lang) | hinTemplate:Ref (Template:Lang) | |
- Template:Note Many speakers do not distinguish between masculine and feminine forms in the second person plural, replacing intum and intin with intu (Template:Lang).
- Template:Note Speakers that do not distinguish between masculine and feminine forms in the third person plural will also use hum (Template:Lang) for both genders in the third person plural, respectively.
Some pronouns, however, have other (less frequent, resp. local) forms:
- ānā (Template:Lang):
- anā (Template:Lang)
- āni (Template:Lang) (especially Baḥrānī)
- inta (Template:Lang):
- init (Template:Lang)
- huwa (Template:Lang):
- hū (Template:Lang)
- huwwa (Template:Lang) (especially Qaṭarī)
- uhu (Template:Lang)
- hiya (Template:Lang):
- hī (Template:Lang)
- hiyya (Template:Lang) (especially Qaṭarī)
- ihi (Template:Lang)
- niḥin (Template:Lang):
- niḥna (Template:Lang)
- iḥna (Template:Lang) (especially Baḥrānī and Qaṭarī)
- ḥina (Template:Lang) (Qaṭarī)
- intum (Template:Lang):
- intu (Template:Lang)
- hum (Template:Lang):
- humma (Template:Lang) (especially Qaṭarī)
- uhum (Template:Lang)
Syntax
The normal word order in main clauses is the following:Template:Sfnp
Subject – (Verb) – (Direct Object) – (Indirect Object) – (Adverbials)
The following sentence indicates the normal word order of declarative statements: Template:Interlinear
When forming interrogative statements, any of these elements can be replaced by interrogative words. Template:Harvcoltxt identifies five such words in Gulf Arabic:Template:Sfnp
- Template:Lang Template:IPA ('who')
- Template:IPA (alternatively, Template:Lang Template:IPA, or Template:Lang Template:IPA) ('what')
- Template:Lang Template:IPA ('how')
- Template:Lang Template:IPA (alternatively Template:IPA) ('why')
- Template:Lang Template:IPA ('when')
Unless it is desired to stress one of these elements, this order of elements is preserved in the formation of interrogative questions.Template:Sfnp Template:Interlinear Template:Interlinear Template:Interlinear
When placing emphasis on the questioned element, word order can change. Specifically, the element of a clause can be questioned by moving it, generally to initial position. With the subject (which is normally initial), it is moved to final position:Template:Sfnp Template:Interlinear The moved element receives strong stress; in the case of a question word, the intonation is a high fall. When the point is to seek clarification, the element questioned has a high rising intonation.Template:Sfnp
See also
References
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
Template:Incubator Template:Varieties of Arabic Template:Languages of Kuwait Template:Languages of Oman Template:Languages of Saudi Arabia Template:Languages of the United Arab Emirates Template:Authority control