Vowel length
Template:Short description Template:More citations needed Template:Use American English Template:Infobox IPA Template:Infobox IPA Template:Infobox IPA In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived or actual duration of a vowel sound when pronounced. Vowels perceived as shorter are often called short vowels and those perceived as longer called long vowels.
On one hand, many languages do not distinguish vowel length phonemically, meaning that vowel length alone does not change the meanings of words. However, the amount of time a vowel is uttered can change based on factors such as the phonetic characteristics of the sounds around it: the phonetic environment. An example is that vowels tend to be pronounced longer before a voiced consonant and shorter before a voiceless consonant in the standard accents of American and British English.
On the other hand, vowel length is indeed an important phonemic factor in certain languages, meaning vowel length can change word-meanings, for example in Arabic, Czech, Dravidian languages (such as Tamil), some Finno-Ugric languages (such as Finnish and Estonian), Japanese, Kyrgyz, Samoan, and Xhosa. Some languages in the past likely had the distinction even though their modern descendants do not, with an example being Latin versus its descendent Romance languages like Spanish and French. Length also plays a lesser phonetic role in Cantonese, unlike in other varieties of Chinese, which do not have phonemic vowel length distinctions.
Whether vowel length alone changes word-meanings in English depends on the particular dialect; it is able to do so in a few non-rhotic dialects, such as Australian English, Lunenburg English, New Zealand English, South African English, and possibly some (vernacular) English of Southern England. For instance, vowel length can distinguish park Template:IPA from puck Template:IPA in Australian and New Zealand English, or bared Template:IPA from bed Template:IPA in any of these dialects. Phonemic vowel length perhaps marginally occurs in a few rhotic dialects too, such as Scottish English and Northern Irish English (see Scottish vowel length rule).
Languages that do distinguish vowel length phonemically usually only distinguish between short vowels and long vowels. Very few languages distinguish three phonemic vowel lengths; some that do so are Estonian, Luiseño, and Mixe. However, languages with two vowel lengths may permit words in which two adjacent vowels are of the same quality: Japanese Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration, "phoenix", or Ancient Greek Template:Lang Template:IPA,<ref>Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott (1996). A Greek-English Lexicon (revised 9th ed. with supplement). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.1</ref> "inviolable". Some languages that do not ordinarily have phonemic vowel length but permit vowel hiatus may similarly exhibit sequences of identical vowel phonemes that yield phonetically long vowels, such as Georgian Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration Template:IPA, "you will facilitate it".
Related features
Stress is often reinforced by allophonic vowel length, especially when it is lexical. For example, French long vowels are always in stressed syllables. Finnish, a language with two phonemic lengths, indicates the stress by adding allophonic length, which gives four distinctive lengths and five physical lengths: short and long stressed vowels, short and long unstressed vowels, and a half-long vowel, which is a short vowel found in a syllable immediately preceded by a stressed short vowel: i-so.
Among the languages with distinctive vowel length, there are some in which it may occur only in stressed syllables, such as in Alemannic German, Scottish Gaelic and Egyptian Arabic. In languages such as Czech, Finnish, some Irish dialects and Classical Latin, vowel length is distinctive also in unstressed syllables.
In some languages, vowel length is sometimes better analyzed as a sequence of two identical vowels. In Finnic languages, such as Finnish, the simplest example follows from consonant gradation: haka → haan. In some cases, it is caused by a following chroneme, which is etymologically a consonant: jää "ice" ← Proto-Uralic *jäŋe. In non-initial syllables, it is ambiguous if long vowels are vowel clusters; poems written in the Kalevala meter often syllabicate between the vowels, and an (etymologically original) intervocalic -h- is seen in that and some modern dialects (taivaan vs. taivahan "of the sky"). Morphological treatment of diphthongs is essentially similar to long vowels. Some old Finnish long vowels have developed into diphthongs, but successive layers of borrowing have introduced the same long vowels again so the diphthong and the long vowel now again contrast (nuotti "musical note" vs. nootti "diplomatic note").
In Japanese, most long vowels are the results of the phonetic change of diphthongs; au and ou became ō, iu became yū, eu became yō, and now ei is becoming ē. The change also occurred after the loss of intervocalic phoneme Template:IPA. For example, modern Kyōto (Kyoto) has undergone a shift: Template:IPA. Another example is shōnen (boy): Template:IPA.
Phonemic vowel length
As noted above, only a relatively few of the world's languages make a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels. Some families have many such languages, examples being the Dravidian languages and the Finno-Ugric languages. Other languages have fewer relatives with vowel length, including Arabic, Japanese, Scottish Gaelic. There are also older languages such as Ancient Greek, Biblical Hebrew, and Latin which have phonemic vowel length but no descendants that preserve it.
In Latin and Hungarian, some long vowels are analyzed as separate phonemes from short vowels:
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Vowel length contrasts with more than two phonemic levels are rare, and several hypothesized cases of three-level vowel length can be analysed without postulating this typologically unusual configuration.<ref>Odden, David (2011). The Representation of Vowel Length. In Marc van Oostendorp, Colin J. Ewen, Elizabeth Hume, & Keren Rice (eds.) The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. Wiley-Blackwell, 465–490.</ref> Estonian has three distinctive lengths, but the third is suprasegmental, as it has developed from the allophonic variation caused by now-deleted grammatical markers. For example, half-long 'aa' in saada comes from the agglutination *saa+tta+k */sɑːtˑɑk/ "send (saatta-) +(imperative)", and the overlong 'aa' in saada comes from *saa+dak "get+(infinitive)". As for languages that have three lengths, independent of vowel quality or syllable structure, these include Dinka, Mixe, Yavapai and Wichita. An example from Mixe is Template:IPA "guava", Template:IPA "spider", Template:IPA "knot". In Dinka the longest vowels are three moras long, and so are best analyzed as overlong e.g. Template:IPA.
Four-way distinctions have been claimed, but these are actually long-short distinctions on adjacent syllables.Template:Citation needed For example, in Kikamba, there is Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA "hit", "dry", "bite", "we have chosen for everyone and are still choosing".
By language
In English
Contrastive vowel length
In many varieties of English, vowels contrast with each other both in length and in quality, and descriptions differ in the relative importance given to these two features. Some descriptions of Received Pronunciation and more widely some descriptions of English phonology group all non-diphthongal vowels into the categories "long" and "short", convenient terms for grouping the many vowels of English.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Daniel Jones proposed that phonetically similar pairs of long and short vowels could be grouped into single phonemes, distinguished by the presence or absence of phonological length (chroneme).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The usual long-short pairings for RP are /iː + ɪ/, /ɑː + æ/, /ɜ: + ə/, /ɔː + ɒ/, /u + ʊ/, but Jones omits /ɑː + æ/. This approach is not found in present-day descriptions of English. Vowels show allophonic variation in length and also in other features according to the context in which they occur. The terms tense (corresponding to long) and lax (corresponding to short) are alternative terms that do not directly refer to length.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In Australian English, there is contrastive vowel length in closed syllables between long and short Template:IPA and Template:IPA. The following are minimal pairs of length:
| Template:IPA ferry | Template:IPA fairy | |
| Template:IPA cut | Template:IPA cart |
Allophonic vowel length
In most varieties of English, for instance Received Pronunciation and General American, there is allophonic variation in vowel length depending on the value of the consonant that follows it: vowels are shorter before voiceless consonants and are longer when they come before voiced consonants.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Thus, the vowel in bad Template:IPA is longer than the vowel in bat Template:IPA. Also compare neat Template:IPAc-en with need Template:IPAc-en. The vowel sound in "beat" is generally pronounced for about 190 milliseconds, but the same vowel in "bead" lasts 350 milliseconds in normal speech, the voiced final consonant influencing vowel length.
Cockney English features short and long varieties of the closing diphthong Template:IPA. The short Template:IPA corresponds to RP Template:IPA in morphologically closed syllables (see thought split), whereas the long Template:IPA corresponds to the non-prevocalic sequence Template:IPA (see l-vocalization). The following are minimal pairs of length:
| Template:IPA fort/fought | Template:IPA fault | |
| Template:IPA pause | Template:IPA Paul's | |
| Template:IPA water | Template:IPA Walter |
The difference is lost in running speech, so that fault falls together with fort and fought as Template:IPA or Template:IPA. The contrast between the two diphthongs is phonetic rather than phonemic, as the Template:IPA can be restored in formal speech: Template:IPA etc., which suggests that the underlying form of Template:IPA is Template:IPA (John Wells says that the vowel is equally correctly transcribed with Template:Angbr IPA or Template:Angbr IPA, not to be confused with Template:Sc2 Template:IPA). Furthermore, a vocalized word-final Template:IPA is often restored before a word-initial vowel, so that fall out Template:IPA (cf. thaw out Template:IPA, with an [[intrusive r|intrusive Template:IPA]]) is somewhat more likely to contain the lateral Template:IPAblink than fall Template:IPA. The distinction between Template:IPA and Template:IPA exists only word-internally before consonants other than intervocalic Template:IPA. In the morpheme-final position only Template:IPA occurs (with the Template:Sc2 vowel being realized as Template:IPA), so that all Template:IPA is always distinct from or Template:IPA. Before the intervocalic Template:IPA Template:IPA is the banned diphthong, though here either of the Template:Sc2 vowels can occur, depending on morphology (compare falling Template:IPA with aweless Template:IPA).<ref name="aoe">Template:Accents of English</ref>
In Cockney, the main difference between Template:IPA and Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA as well as Template:IPA and Template:IPA is length, not quality, so that his Template:IPA, merry Template:IPA and Polly Template:IPA differ from here's Template:IPA, Mary Template:IPA and poorly Template:IPA (see cure-force merger) mainly in length. In broad Cockney, the contrast between Template:IPA and Template:IPA is also mainly one of length; compare hat Template:IPA with out Template:IPA (cf. the near-RP form Template:IPA, with a wide closing diphthong).<ref name="aoe"/>
"Long" and "short" vowel letters in spelling and the classroom teaching of reading
{{#invoke:Hatnote|hatnote}} In the teaching of English, vowels are commonly said to have a "short" and a "long" version. The terms "short" and "long" are not accurate from a linguistic point of view—at least in the case of Modern English—as the vowels are not actually short and long versions of the same sound; the terminology is a historical holdover due to their arising from proper vowel length in Middle English. The phonetic values of these vowels are shown in the table below.
| letter | "short" | "long" | examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| a | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | mat / mate |
| e | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | pet / Pete |
| i | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | twin / twine |
| o | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | not / note |
| oo | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | wood / wooed |
| u | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | cub / cube |
In a phonetic transcription system that uses pronunciation respelling, "long" and "short" vowel letters are written in a form a normal reader of the language would unambiguously know how to pronounce; eg. "ay" or "ey" are used for Template:IPA (a long "a"), and "ee" or "iy" are used for Template:IPA (a long "i"). Whilst many dictionaries use pronunciation respelling, other dictionaries, notably the Merriam-Webster,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> use a macron over a vowel to indicate a long vowel; for example, ⟨ā⟩ is be used to represent the IPA sound Template:IPA, or a breve to indicate a short vowel (e.g. ⟨ă⟩ to represent the IPA sound /æ/), as is used in the American Heritage Dictionary.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> See Pronunciation respelling for English for a comprehensive comparative table of pronunciation respelling systems for English.
Origin
Vowel length may often be traced to assimilation. In Australian English, the second element Template:IPA of a diphthong Template:IPA has assimilated to the preceding vowel, giving the pronunciation of bared as Template:IPA, creating a contrast with the short vowel in bed Template:IPA.
Another common source is the vocalization of a consonant such as the voiced velar fricative Template:IPA or voiced palatal fricative or, in fact, an approximant (such as the typical realisation of the English diaphoneme /r/). A historically important example is the laryngeal theory, which states that long vowels in the Indo-European languages were formed from short vowels, followed by any one of the several "laryngeal" sounds of Proto-Indo-European (conventionally written h1, h2 and h3). When a laryngeal sound followed a vowel, it was later lost in most Indo-European languages, and the preceding vowel became long. However, Proto-Indo-European had long vowels of other origins as well, usually as the result of older sound changes, such as Szemerényi's law and Stang's law.
Vowel length may also have arisen as an allophonic quality of a single vowel phoneme, which may have then become split in two phonemes. For example, the Australian English phoneme Template:IPA was created by the incomplete application of a rule extending Template:IPA before certain voiced consonants, a phenomenon known as the bad–lad split. An alternative pathway to the phonemicization of allophonic vowel length is the shift of a vowel of a formerly-different quality to become the short counterpart of a vowel pair. That too is exemplified by Australian English, whose contrast between Template:IPA (as in duck) and Template:IPA (as in dark) was brought about by a lowering of the earlier Template:IPA.
Estonian, a Finnic language, has a rareTemplate:Citation needed phenomenon in which allophonic length variation has become phonemic after the deletion of the suffixes causing the allophony. Estonian had already inherited two vowel lengths from Proto-Finnic, but a third one was then introduced. For example, the Finnic imperative marker *-k caused the preceding vowels to be articulated shorter. After the deletion of the marker, the allophonic length became phonemic, as shown in the example above.
NotationsTemplate:Anchor
Latin alphabet
IPA
In the International Phonetic Alphabet the sign Template:IPA (not a colon, but two triangles facing each other in an hourglass shape; Unicode <syntaxhighlight lang="text" class="" style="" inline="1">U+02D0</syntaxhighlight>) is used for both vowel and consonant length. This may be doubled for an extra-long sound, or the top half (Template:IPA) may be used to indicate that a sound is "half long". A breve is used to mark an extra-short vowel or consonant.
Estonian has a three-way phonemic contrast:
- saada Template:IPA "to get" (overlong)
- saada Template:IPA "send!" (long)
- sada Template:IPA "hundred" (short)
Although not phonemic, a half-long distinction can also be illustrated in certain accents of English:
- bead Template:IPA
- beat Template:IPA
- bid Template:IPA
- bit Template:IPA
Diacritics
- Macron (ā), used to indicate a long vowel in Māori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Latvian and many transcription schemes, including romanizations for Sanskrit and Arabic, the Hepburn romanization for Japanese, and Yale for Korean. While not part of their standard orthography, the macron is used as a teaching aid in modern Latin and Ancient Greek textbooks. Macron is also used in modern official Cyrillic orthographies of some minority languages (Mansi,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Kildin Sami, Evenki).
- Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels in several linguistic transcription systems, as well as in Vietnamese and Alvarez-Hale's orthography for O'odham.
- Acute accent (á), used to indicate a long vowel in Czech, Slovak, Old Norse, Hungarian, Irish, traditional Scottish Gaelic (for long [oː] ó, [eː] é, as opposed to [ɛː] è, [ɔː] ò) and pre-20th-century transcriptions of Sanskrit, Arabic, etc.
- An apex, which was a light acute accent that was angled lower and aligned with a letter's right, was used in Classical Latin. (However, for I, a taller ꟾ was sometimes used instead.)
- Circumflex (â), used for example in Welsh. The circumflex is occasionally used as a surrogate for the macrons, particularly in Hawaiian and in the Kunrei-shiki romanization of Japanese, or in transcriptions of Old High German. In transcriptions of Middle High German, a system where inherited lengths are marked with the circumflex and new lengths with the macron is occasionally used.
- Grave accent (à) is used in Scottish Gaelic, with a e i o u. (In traditional spelling, [ɛː] is è and [ɔː] is ò as in gnè, pòcaid, Mòr (personal name), while [eː] is é and [oː] is ó, as in dé, mór.)
- Ogonek (ą), used in Lithuanian to indicate long vowels.
- Trema (ä), used in Aymara to indicate long vowels.
Additional letters
- Vowel doubling, used consistently in Estonian, Finnish, Lombard, Navajo and Somali, and in closed syllables in Dutch, Afrikaans, and West Frisian. Example: Finnish tuuli Template:IPA 'wind' vs. tuli Template:IPA 'fire'.
- Estonian also has a rare "overlong" vowel length but does not distinguish it from the normal long vowel in writing, as they are distinguishable by context; see the example below.
- Consonant doubling after short vowels is very common in Swedish and other Germanic languages, including English. The system is somewhat inconsistent, especially in loanwords, around consonant clusters and with word-final nasal consonants. Examples:
- Consistent use: byta Template:IPA 'to change' vs bytta Template:IPA 'tub' and koma Template:IPA 'coma' vs komma Template:IPA 'to come'
- Inconsistent use: fält Template:IPA 'a field' and kam Template:IPA 'a comb' (but the verb 'to comb' is kamma)
- Classical Milanese orthography uses consonant doubling in closed short syllables, e.g., lenguagg 'language' and pubblegh 'public'.<ref>Carlo Porta on the Italian Wikisource</ref>
- ie is used to mark the long Template:IPA sound in German because of the preservation and the generalization of a historic ie spelling, which originally represented the sound Template:IPA. In Low German, a following e letter lengthens other vowels as well, e.g., in the name Kues Template:IPA.
- A following h is frequently used in German and older Swedish spelling, e.g., German Zahn Template:IPA 'tooth'.
- In Czech, the additional letter ů is used for the long U sound, and the character is known as a kroužek, e.g., kůň "horse". (It actually developed from the ligature "uo", which noted the diphthong Template:IPA until it shifted to Template:IPA.)
Other signs
- Colon, Template:Angle bracket, from Americanist phonetic notation, and used in orthographies based on it such as Oʼodham, Mohawk or Seneca. The triangular colon Template:Angle bracket in the International Phonetic Alphabet derives from this.
- Middot or half-colon, Template:Angle bracket, a more common variant in the Americanist tradition, also used in language orthographies.
- Saltillo (straight apostrophe), used in Miꞌkmaq, as evidenced by the name itself. This is the convention of the Listuguj orthography (Miꞌgmaq), and a common substitution for the acute accent (Míkmaq) of the Francis-Smith orthography.
No distinction
Some languages make no distinction in writing. This is particularly the case with ancient languages such as Old English. Modern edited texts often use macrons with long vowels, however. Australian English does not distinguish the vowels Template:IPA from Template:IPA in spelling, with words like 'span' or 'can' having different pronunciations depending on meaning. Other modern languages that do not represent vowel length in their standard orthography include Serbo-Croatian, Slovene and Hausa.
Other writing systems
In non-Latin writing systems, a variety of mechanisms have also evolved.
- In abjads derived from the Aramaic alphabet, notably Arabic and Hebrew, long vowels are written with consonant letters (mostly approximant consonant letters) in a process called mater lectionis e.g. in Modern Arabic the long vowel Template:IPA is represented by the letter ا (Alif), the vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA are represented by و (wāw), and the vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA are represented by ي (yāʼ), while short vowels are typically omitted entirely. Most of these scripts also have optional diacritics that can be used to mark short vowels when needed.
- In South-Asian abugidas, such as Devanagari or the Thai alphabet, there are different vowel signs for short and long vowels.
- Ancient Greek also had distinct vowel signs, but only for some long vowels; the vowel letters Template:Lang (eta) and Template:Lang (omega) originally represented long forms of the vowels represented by the letters Template:Lang (epsilon, literally "bare e") and ο (omicron – literally "small o", by contrast with omega or "large o"). The other vowel letters of Ancient Greek, Template:Lang (alpha), Template:Lang (iota) and Template:Lang (upsilon), could represent either short or long vowel phones.
- Japanese phonology:
- In the hiragana syllabary, long vowels are usually indicated by adding a vowel character after. For vowels Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA, the corresponding independent vowel is added. Thus: Template:Lang (a), Template:Lang, "okaasan", mother; Template:Lang (i), にいがた "Niigata", city in northern Japan (usually Template:Lang, in kanji); Template:Lang (u), Template:Lang "ryuu" (usu. Template:Lang), dragon. The mid-vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA may be written with Template:Lang (e) (rare) (Template:Lang (Template:Lang), neesan, "elder sister") and Template:Lang (o) [[[:Template:Lang]] (usu Template:Lang), ookii, big], or with Template:Lang (i) (Template:Lang (Template:Lang), "meirei", command/order) and Template:Lang (u) (Template:Lang (Template:Lang), ousama, "king") depending on etymological, morphological, and historic grounds.
- Most long vowels in the katakana syllabary are written with a special bar symbol Template:Lang (vertical in vertical writing), called a chōon, as in Template:Lang mēkā "maker" instead of Template:Lang meka "mecha". However, some long vowels are written with additional vowel characters, as with hiragana, with the distinction being orthographically significant.
- Some analyses make a distinction between a long vowel and a succession of two identical vowels, citing pairs such as Template:Lang satōya 'sugar shop' Template:IPA vs. Template:Langx Template:IPA. They are usually identical in normal speech, but when enunciated a distinction may be made with a pause or a glottal stop inserted between two identical vowels.Template:Sfnp
- In transcription: tsuki Template:IPA 'moon' vs. tsūki Template:IPA 'airflow'.
- In the Korean Hangul alphabet, vowel length is not distinguished in normal writing. Some dictionaries use a double dot, Template:Angle bracket, for example Template:Lang "Daikon radish".
- In the Classic Maya script, also based on syllabic characters, long vowels in monosyllabic roots were generally written with word-final syllabic signs ending in the vowel -i rather than an echo-vowel. Hence, chaach "basket", with a long vowel, was written as cha-chi (compare chan "sky", with a short vowel, written as cha-na). If the nucleus of the syllable was itself i, however, the word-final vowel for indicating length was -a: tziik- "to count; to honour, to sanctify" was written as tzi-ka (compare sitz' "appetite", written as si-tz'i).