Hugh S. Johnson

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Template:AI-generated Template:Short description Template:Other people Template:Infobox officeholder Hugh Samuel Johnson (August 5, 1882 – April 15, 1942) was a United States Army officer, businessman, speech writer, government official and newspaper columnist. He was a member of the Brain Trust of Franklin D. Roosevelt from 1932 to 1934. He wrote numerous speeches for FDR and helped plan the New Deal. Appointed head of the National Recovery Administration (NRA) in 1933, he was highly energetic in his "blue eagle" campaign to reorganize American business to reduce competition and raise wages and prices. Schlesinger (1958) and Ohl (1985) conclude that he was an excellent organizer, but that he was also domineering, abusive, outspoken, and unable to work harmoniously with his peers. He lost control of the NRA in August 1934.<ref> Schlesinger, Arthur Jr. The Coming of the New Deal (1958) pp 105–6, 156; Ohl, John Kennedy. Hugh S. Johnson and the New Deal. DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois Univ Press, 1985. Template:ISBN </ref>

Early life

He was born in Fort Scott, Kansas in 1882<ref name="Hamby">Hamby, For the Survival of Democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the World Crisis of the 1930s, 2004, p. 144.</ref> to Samuel L. and Elizabeth (née Mead) Johnson.<ref name="Cyclopedia">White, The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, 1967, p. 5.</ref>

His paternal grandparents, Samuel and Matilda (MacAlan) Johnson, emigrated to the United States from Ireland in 1837 and originally settled in Brooklyn, New York.<ref name="Cyclopedia"/> Hugh's father was a lawyer, and he attended public school in Wichita, Kansas, before the family moved to Alva, Oklahoma Territory.<ref name="Cyclopedia"/> He attempted to run away from home to join the Oklahoma state militia at the age of 15, but he was apprehended by his family before he left town.<ref name="Crawford">Crawford, "He Risked Disgrace to Speed the Draft," New York Times, June 9, 1918.</ref> His father promised to try to secure him an appointment to the United States Military Academy (West Point), and was successful in obtaining an alternate appointment.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Hamby"/><ref name="Crawford"/> Johnson himself discovered that the individual who was first in line for the appointment was too old, and convinced him to step aside so that Johnson could enter the academy.<ref name="Crawford"/>

Military career

Johnson, Enoch Crowder and Roscoe S. Conkling at Camp Upton in Yaphank, New York, 1917

Johnson entered West Point in 1899,<ref name="Registry1044">Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates..., 1920, p. 1044.</ref><ref name="Hamby"/><ref name="Howard">Howard, "Our Twenty-one Generals of Forty Years and Under," New York Times, August 24, 1919.</ref> and graduated and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 1st Cavalry on June 11, 1903.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Howard"/> Douglas MacArthur was one of his West Point classmates.<ref name="Hamby"/> From 1907 to 1909 he was stationed at Pampanga, Philippines, but later was transferred to California.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Howard"/> In the early years of the 20th century, most national parks in the United States were administered by units of the United States Army.<ref>See, generally: Hampton, How the U.S. Cavalry Saved Our National Parks, 1971.</ref> Johnson was subsequently stationed at Yosemite and Sequoia national parks.<ref name="Registry1044"/> He was promoted to first lieutenant on March 11, 1911, and was named superintendent of Sequoia National Park in 1912.<ref name="Registry1044"/>

Wishing to follow in his father's footsteps, Johnson won permission from General Enoch Crowder<ref name="Crawford"/> to attend the University of California (at Berkeley) where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree (with honors) in 1915 and his Juris Doctor in 1916 (doubling up on courses to graduate in half the time required).<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Crawford"/> Transferring to the Judge Advocate General's Corps (JAG), from May to October 1916 he served under General John J. Pershing in Mexico with the Pancho Villa Expedition.<ref name="Registry1044"/> promoted to captain on July 1, 1916, he transferred to the JAG headquarters in Washington, D.C., in October 1916.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Howard"/> He was promoted to major on May 15, 1917, and to lieutenant colonel on August 5, 1917.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Howard"/> He was named Deputy Provost Marshal General in October 1917,<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref>"Col. H. S. Johnson Deputy Provost Marshal," New York Times, January 25, 1918.</ref> and the same month was named to a Department of War committee on military training (the U.S. had entered World War I on April 6, 1917).<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref>"Plans to Mobilize Schools to Aid War," New York Times, February 17, 1918.</ref>

As a captain, Johnson helped co-author the regulations implementing the Selective Service Act of 1917.<ref name="Hamby"/> Without Congressional authorization, he ordered completed several of the initial first steps needed to implement the draft.<ref name="Crawford"/> The action could have led to his court-martial had Congress not acted (a month later) to pass the conscription law.<ref name="Crawford"/> He was promoted to colonel on January 8, 1918, and to brigadier general on April 15, 1918.<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Howard"/><ref>"Promotes 10 Brigadiers," New York Times, April 17, 1918.</ref> At the time of his promotion, he was the youngest person, at the age of 35, to reach the rank of brigadier general since the Civil War, and the youngest West Point graduate to remain continuously in the service who had ever reached the rank.<ref name="Crawford"/> Ohl (1985) finds that Johnson was an excellent second-in-command during the war in the Office of the Provost Marshal under Brigadier General Enoch H. Crowder as long as he was closely watched and tightly supervised. His considerable talents were effectively drawn upon in the planning and implementation of the registration and draft before and during the conflict. However he was never able to work smoothly with others.<ref name="Ohl 1985">Ohl (1985)</ref>

Upon his promotion to brigadier general, Johnson was appointed director of the Purchase and Supply Branch of the General Staff in April 1918,<ref name="Registry1044"/><ref name="Crawford"/> and was promoted to assistant director of the Purchase, Storage and Traffic Division of the General Staff in October 1918.<ref name="Registry1044"/> In this capacity, he worked closely with the War Industries Board.<ref name="Hamby"/> He favorably impressed many businessmen, including Bernard Baruch (head of the War Industries Board).<ref name="Hamby"/> These contacts later proved critical in winning Johnson a position with President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration.<ref name="Hamby"/> He was put in command of the 15th Infantry Brigade which was part of the 8th Division, but the unit did not deploy to Europe because the war had ended. Template:Dubious<ref name="Registry1045">Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates..., 1920, p. 1045.</ref>

Johnson resigned from the U.S. Army on February 25, 1919.<ref name="Registry1045"/> For his service in the Provost Marshal's office and in executing the draft, he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal in 1926.<ref name="Registry1045"/> The citation for the medal reads:

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After World War I

Johnson was named assistant general manager of the Moline Plow Company on September 1, 1919.<ref name="Registry1045"/> Moline Plow's president, George Peek, and Johnson were both supporters of the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill, a proposed federal law which would have established the first farm price supports in U.S. history.<ref name="Hamby"/>

Johnson left Moline Plow in 1927 to become an adviser to Bernard Baruch.<ref>Davis, Henry Blaine Jr. (1998). Generals in Khaki. Pentland Press, Inc. p. 204. Template:ISBN. OCLC 40298151</ref> He joined the Brain Trust of Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. His major role was drafting speeches, most notably one that FDR delivered in Pittsburgh denouncing the reckless spending of the Hoover administration and calling for a very conservative fiscal policy.<ref>Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Triumph (1956) 361-63</ref>

New Deal career

NRA

Time magazine cover awarding Johnson the 1933 Man of the Year.

Three months into President Roosevelt’s term, with banking reforms and agricultural support already under way, FDR’s advisers sought a new approach dubbed “workplace democratization.” Early drafts of the industrial recovery legislation had been prepared by Raymond Moley, but in spring 1933 Roosevelt charged Hugh S. Johnson—an Army veteran turned businessman and progressive—with administering the new Act.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle from Egg to Earth, pp. 12–15.</ref> On June 16, 1933, the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) took effect.<ref name="NIRA">National Industrial Recovery Act (1933), National Archives.</ref> Title II of the Act created the Public Works Administration to fund construction projects, while Title I established the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to oversee industry codes for “fair competition.”

Under the NIRA, thousands of firms joined industry-wide “codes” setting wages, hours, production limits and price guidelines in cooperation with labor and consumer representatives. In contrast to top-down planning, each Code was drafted by committees of business, labor and consumer groups at a public hearing. A Deputy Administrator then mediated differences and, failing agreement, deferred to the state for a final determination—seeking “the greatest justice & fairness” for all participants.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, pp. 45–48.</ref> Section 7 guaranteed collective bargaining; in response the Act created the National Labor Board (NLB) with 20 regional panels appointed by the NRA to resolve labor disputes, issue subpoenas and oversee union elections.<ref>“1933 The NLB and ‘The Old NLRB’,” National Labor Relations Board.</ref> Between its inception and abolition, the NLB settled 1,019 strikes, avoided 498 more and mediated 1,800 other conflicts.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, p. 72.</ref>

The NRA also launched the Blue Eagle campaign: compliant firms displayed the eagle emblem to signal to patriotic consumers, while non-compliers faced boycotts.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, pp. 80–83.</ref>

The NRA involved ending the Great Depression by organizing thousands of businesses under codes drawn up by trade associations and industries. According to biographer John Ohl (as summarized by reviewer Lester V. Chandler):

Johnson's priorities became evident almost immediately. In the prescription, "Self regulation of industry under government supervision" the emphasis was to be on maximum freedom for business to formulate its own rules with a minimum of government supervision. Consumer protection and the interests of labor were of decidedly lesser importance. To induce business to formulate and abide by codes of fair competition Johnson was willing to condone almost any type of price fixing, restriction of production, limitation of productive capacity, and other types of anti-competitive practices.<ref>Lester V. Chandler, review of Ohl, Hugh S. Johnson and the New Deal in Journal of Economic History (March 1987) 47: 286 DOI:10.1017/s0022050700047951</ref>

Johnson was recognized for his efforts when Time named him Man of the Year of 1933—choosing him instead of FDR.<ref>see TIME story</ref> By 1934 the enthusiasm that Johnson had so successfully created had faded. Johnson was faltering badly, which historians ascribe to the profound contradictions in NRA policies, compounded by heavy drinking on the job. Big business and labor unions both turned hostile.<ref>William H. Wilson, "How the chamber of commerce viewed the NRA: A re-examination." Mid America 42 (1962): 95-108.</ref><ref>Bernard Bellush, The Failure of the NRA (1975).</ref><ref>Martin, Madam Secretary: Frances Perkins, (1976) p. 331.</ref> 1

According to historian Ellis Hawley:<ref>Ellis Hawley, review of Bernard Balush, The Failure of the NRA American Historical Review 81#4 1976 p. 995.</ref>

at the hands of historians the National Recovery Administration of 1933-35 has fared badly. Cursed at the time, it has remained the epitome of political aberration, illustrative of the pitfalls of “planning” and deplored both for hampering recovery and delaying genuine reform.

Clock with busts of Johnson (lower left), Roosevelt (top), and Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins (lower right), 1934 (National Museum of American History)

In its brief existence, according to internal reports, the NRA created an estimated 2.78 million jobs—more than all other New Deal agencies combined by 1935, and added roughly $3 billion annually to purchasing power without direct Treasury appropriations.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, pp. 105–110.</ref> It established minimum wages, maximum hours, ended most child-labor practices and dissolved sweatshops across multiple industries.<ref>Houck, Rhetoric as Currency, 2001, pp. 98–102.</ref>

The key NRA code successes included:

  • **Bituminous Coal Code**: This code unified northern and southern Appalachian producers and restored over 4,500 small mines under fair labor rules.<ref>Berk, “The National Recovery Administration Reconsidered,” Studies in American Political Development 25(1):56–85, 2011.</ref>
  • **Lumber Code**: This code reopened some 2,000 small mills with regulated prices and hours.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, pp. 120–123.</ref>
  • **Corrugated & Solid Fiber Shipping Container Code**: This code, through the “Stevenson Plan” incentivized innovation over price cutting; production value rose 76.3% from 1932–35 and employment by 30.7%.<ref>Berk, “Container Code,” 2011.</ref>

By mid-1934 enforcement slackened and voluntary compliance collapsed. On September 9, 1934, Johnson proposed converting the NRA into an administrative body with 60 government representatives, a National Industrial Commission, and a judicial tribunal for code disputes—but none of these reforms were adopted.<ref>Johnson, The Blue Eagle, pp. 150–155.</ref> He submitted his resignation that month after Frances Perkins, convinced that Hugh S Johnson sought to implement fascism, had been pressuring FDR to fire Johnson. And yet, according to Johnson's account, he resigned from the NRA because his planned reform of the NRA would result in his leadership role being redundant. Hugh S Johnson's resignation became effective October 15, 1934.<ref>FDR to Johnson, October 15, 1934.</ref> The NRA continued in deteriorating form until the Supreme Court struck down the NIRA in *Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States* (May 1935).

Johnson came under attack by Labor Secretary Frances Perkins for having "un-American policies".<ref>Martin, Madam Secretary, p. 337.</ref> He distributed copies of a fascist tract called "The Corporate State" by one of Benito Mussolini's favorite economists, Bruno Biagi, including giving one to Perkins and asking her to give copies to Roosevelt's cabinet.<ref>Martin, Madam Secretary, p. 335.</ref>

Journalism, later life and death

Johnson's grave in Arlington National Cemetery.

Upon leaving the Roosevelt administration, Johnson, who had long been a successful essay writer for national magazines, now became a syndicated newspaper columnist specializing in political commentary. He supported Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election, but when the Court-packing plan was announced in 1937 he denounced Roosevelt as a would-be dictator. In 1939 he endorsed isolationism—staying out of World War II; he endorsed Wendell Willkie the Republican candidate in the 1940 presidential election.<ref name="Ohl 1985"/> He initially worked with the America First Committee, but resigned over the racist and anti-Semitic elements of the organization.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Johnson wrote a number of articles and stories. One future history piece, The Dam, was written in 1911 and appears in the Sam Moskowitz anthology, Science Fiction by Gaslight. In the story, Japan invades and conquers California.Template:Citation needed

General Hugh S. Johnson died in Washington, D.C., in April 1942 from pneumonia.<ref name="Obit">"Hugh S. Johnson Dies in Capital," New York Times, April 16, 1942.</ref> He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

Writings

After leaving government service, Johnson became a syndicated columnist for the New York Daily News, where he wrote extensively on political and military issues. His columns were known for their blunt style and often critical tone, with some historians describing him as “domineering, abusive, outspoken” in his public commentary.<ref>Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Coming of the New Deal, 1958; John Kennedy Ohl, Hugh S. Johnson and the New Deal, 1985.</ref>

In 1935, Johnson published a memoir:

  • The Blue Eagle from Egg to Earth (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935) – a detailed personal account of his experiences in the Roosevelt administration and his role in shaping the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The book reflects his complex relationship with the New Deal and contains insights into his evolving political views.

Some of Johnson's writings in the late 1930s and early 1940s took on a more isolationist tone as tensions rose in Europe. Until his death in April 1942, he remained a prominent media figure—working as a public speaker, syndicated columnist, and author.<ref>Donovan Reichenberger, “Johnson, Hugh Samuel,” Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Accessed June 14, 2025. [1]</ref>

<ref>Johnson, Hugh S. The Blue Eagle from Egg to Earth. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935.</ref> <ref>Ohl, Charles C. "Hugh S. Johnson: The Man, His Ideas, and the National Recovery Administration." PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1966.</ref>


Awards

Dates of rank

No insignia Cadet, United States Military Academy: June 13, 1899
No insignia in 1903 Second Lieutenant, Regular Army: June 11, 1903
First Lieutenant, Regular Army: March 11, 1911
Captain, Regular Army: July 1, 1916
Major, Regular Army: May 15, 1917
Lieutenant Colonel, National Army: August 5, 1917
File:US-O6 insignia.svg Colonel, National Army: January 8, 1918
File:US-O7 insignia.svg Brigadier General, National Army: April 15, 1918

Footnotes

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References

  • Bellush, Bernard. The Failure of the NRA (1975) online
  • Cullum, George Washington. Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y.: From Its Establishment, in 1802, to 1890. 3d ed. New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1920.
  • Hampton, H. Duane. How the U.S. Cavalry Saved Our National Parks. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1971. Template:ISBN
  • Hamby, Alonzo L. For the Survival of Democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the World Crisis of the 1930s. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. Template:ISBN
  • Hawley, Ellis W. The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly: A Study in Economic Ambivalence (1966) on NRA
  • Ohl, John Kennedy. Hugh S. Johnson and the New Deal. DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois Univ Press, 1985. Template:ISBN, standard scholarly biography
  • Ohl, John Kennedy. "Tales Told by a New Dealer: General Hugh S. Johnson," Montana: The Magazine Of Western History 1975 25(4): 66–77
  • Schlesinger, Arthur Jr. The Coming of the New Deal (1958), extensive coverage of Johnson's NRA
  • Schwarz, Jordan A. The New Dealers: Power politics in the age of Roosevelt (Vintage, 2011) pp 93–108. online
  • White, James Terry. The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1967.

Primary sources

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