Some Muslim scholars uphold a more ambivalent role for Iblis while preserving the term Template:Transliteration exclusively for evil forces, considering Iblis to be not simply a devil but also "the truest monotheist" (Tawḥīd-i Iblīs), because he would only bow before the Creator and not his creations.<ref name="Awn-1983"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Rustom-2020">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Others have strongly rejected sympathies with Iblis, considering them to be deceptively instigated by Iblis. Rumi's poetic work Masnavi-e-Ma'navi explores this form of deception in detail: when Iblis wakes up Mu'awiya to the morning prayer, he appears to have benevolent intentions at first, but it turns out, Iblis is just hiding his true malevolent motivations. The ambivalent role of Iblis is also addressed in Islamic literature. Hafez, who considers Iblis to be an angel, writes that angels are incapable of emotional expression and thus that Iblis attempts to mimic piety but is incapable of worshipping God with passion. According to Muhammad Iqbal, Iblis tests humans in order to teach them to overcome their selfish tendencies.
Iblis is one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities in Islamic tradition, and has appeared extensively across Islamic and non-Islamic art, literature, and contemporary media.
The Quranic story of Iblis parallels extrabiblical sources, such as Life of Adam and Eve,<ref name="Awn-1983"/>Template:Rp about Satan's fall from heaven, preponderant in Eastern Christian circles.<ref name="i466">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp
Theology (Kalam)
Quran
Iblis is mentioned by name in the Quran eleven times, nine of which relate to his refusal of God's Command to prostrate himself before Adam. The term šayṭān is more prevalent; although Iblis is sometimes referred to as šayṭān, the terms are not interchangeable: Iblis is the proper name of the Quranic figure, while šayṭān refers to an unequivocal evil force.<ref name="Awn-1983"/>Template:Rp The fragments of Iblis's story are scattered across the Quran. In the aggregate, the story can be summarised as follows:<ref name="Awn-1983"/>Template:Rp
When God created Adam, He ordered the angels to bow before the new creation. All of the angels obeyed, but Iblis refused. He argued that, having been created from fire, he was superior to humans, who were made from clay-mud, and therefore should not be expected to prostrate himself before Adam.<ref>Template:Qref</ref> As punishment for his haughtiness, God banished Iblis from heaven and condemned him to hell. Later, Iblis requested permission to attempt to mislead Adam and his descendants, and God granted the request—thus portraying God as the power behind both angels and devils.<ref name=y167/>Template:Rp
This passage led to a dispute among the mufassirūn (exegetes), who disagree on whether the term is intended as a nisba, designating Iblis's heavenly origin (i.e. an angel) in contrast to the earthly Adam (and the jinn who preceded him), or if it serves to distinguish Iblis from the angels, portraying him as the progenitor of the jinn who dwelled in paradise until his fall — analogous to Adam's sin in Garden Eden followed by his fall.<ref name=y167/>Template:Rp<ref name="u038">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="z808">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp This dispute goes back to the formative stage of Islam. These two conflicting opinions are based on the interpretations of ibn Abbas and Hasan al-Basri respectively.<ref name="y167">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp This debate resulted in two positions, at each gained substantial support by Muslim scholars.<ref name=y167/>Template:Rp
"And whosoever among them would say, "Truly I am a god apart from Him," such will We requite with Hell. Thus do We requite the wrongdoers."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Sijjin, mentioned in Surah 83:7, is described as a prison in hell by Quranic exegetes (e.g. Tabari, Tha'labi, Nasafi).<ref name=y167/>Template:Rp Iblis is chained at the bottom and sends his demons to the surface.<ref name=y167/>Template:Rp
Affiliation and predestination
File:Biblioteka Czartoryskich 3885 II, rękopis Safran 93 fol 38v The angels face Adam.pngThe Angels meet Adam, the prototypical human being. They share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblis, who haughtily turns his head away. Painting from a manuscript of the Manṭiq al-ṭayr (The Conference of the Birds) of Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār. Iran, Shiraz, 899/1494.
There are different opinions regarding the origin of Iblis. This dispute is closely related to doctrinal differences regarding free will. Islam believes that like humans, jinn are created on earth to "worship" (Template:Tlit) God (51:56), and are capable of righteous and evil acts (11:119).<ref name="b922">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp
It is disputed in Islam whether angels (malāʾikah) are capable of sin. Those who hold that angels cannot sin thus assert that Iblis is merely a jinn, with only jinn and humans being capable of disobeying God.<ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp This is the general opinion among the Qadariyah and most Mu'tazilites.<ref name="Lange"/><ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp This view is also found among many Salafis.<ref name="p475">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Islamist writer Sayyid Qutb denies that angels can sin and so rejects readings which depict Iblis as an angelic being.<ref name="r895" /> Sunni Muslims, with al-Razi as one exception, generally adhere to the doctrine of predestination—i.e. that everything that happens in the universe happens by divine decree<ref name="c946">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp—and assert that Iblis acts in obedience to his inner nature and God's plan, but in disobedience to God's command.<ref name="r895"/><ref name="z808"/>Template:Rp
The context of Iblis's disobedience assumes that Iblis is an angel, as in early Islam the term Template:Tlit (angel) is used for celestial beings.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Tabarsi says that if Iblis were a jinni, he could not have been one of the custodians of Paradise.<ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp
Many of those who say that Iblis was an angel read Surah 18:50 as a Template:Tlit for the term Template:Tlit, thus referring to Iblis's heavenly origin (this reading is preferred by – among othersTemplate:SndAsh'ari,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:RpSuyuti, and al-Tha'labi<ref name="Gardet-1971"/>).
The Hanbalites and Ash'arites argue that Iblis was ignorant (Template:Tlit) and did not understand God's will (Template:Tlit),<ref name="Basharin-2018" />Template:Rp but Iblis's unbelief (Template:Tlit) was ultimately caused by God.<ref name="Basharin-2018" />Template:RpAl-Maghrībī states that, when the angels questioned the creation of Adam, God opened the angels' eyes to the characteristics of Adam, but closed the eyes of Iblis, so he would remain in resistance (Template:Tlit).<ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp Therefore, Iblis would have been created as a disobedient angel and function as God's tempter.<ref name="Awn-1983"/>Template:RpAbu Mansur al-Maturidi, the eponymous founder of Māturīdī theology, argues that humans and jinn are tested on earth, while angels are tested in heaven. He argues that if angels were not tested, the Quran would not compliment angels for obedience.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp
The Mu'tazilites, considering it impossible for God to have any negative attributes, reject the notion that Iblis's function as a tempter was initiated by God.<ref name="u351">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="z808"/>Template:RpAl-Zamakhshari criticizes the Sunni view as ascribing negative attributes to God.<ref name="z808"/>Template:Rp According to the Mu'tazilites, when Iblis blames God for leading him astray in Surah 15:39, these words belong to Iblis alone and cannot serve as a confirmation of God being the cause of Iblis's fall.<ref name="z808"/>Template:Rp
In Muslim thought, Iblis is generally not considered to be the originator of evil. However, there are a few exceptions among Muslim scholars.<ref name="Basharin-2018" />Template:Rp The Qadariyah asserted that evil was introduced by disobedience to God, and Iblis was the first who disobeyed.<ref name="Basharin-2018" />Template:Rp This view is sometimes attributed to Hasan al-Basri.<ref name="e255">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp An extreme position among the Qadariyah asserted that Iblis was not even created by God, but this was generally rejected as a limitation on God's power, showing influence from the cosmic dualism of Zoroastrianism, as expressed by "magicians" (Template:Tlit).<ref name="Basharin-2018" />Template:Rp<ref name="auto1">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Al-Māturīdī argued that such dualistic worldviews are irreconcilable with the Islamic doctrine of Template:Tlit.<ref name="auto1" />Template:Rp Some extreme positions went as far as to consider belief that actions are uncaused by God to be a form of Template:Tlit (association), as it implies a second power independent from God.Template:Sfnp
Although not the cause of evil, Iblis is known as the progenitor of tempters, known as the "father of the devils" (Template:Tlit).<ref name="Egdunas Racius">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp Hadith literature emphasizes their evil influences over humans rather than treating them as proper personalities.Template:Sfnp Muslims are advised to "seek refuge" from such influences and are recommended to recite prayers (Template:Tlit) for protection.<ref name="q742">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp
Sufism
Sufi formulations about the mystical union with God, although fundamentally mystical in nature, derive from the theological debates undertaken within the school of kalam.<ref name="y361">Template:Cite book</ref> In sum, there are two distinct interpretations of the role of Iblis within the Sufi tradition.<ref name="y361"/>
The first interpretation holds that Iblis refused to bow before Adam because he would not prostrate himself before anyone but his creator, thus considering Iblis to be a "true monotheist" only bested by Muhammad, an idea known as "Satan's monotheism" (Template:Tlit).<ref name="Rustom-2020"/> Oblivious to rewards and punishment, Iblis acts out of pure love and loyalty and disobeys the explicit command and obeys the hidden will of God.<ref name="y361"/> In a unity of opposites, Iblis finds in his banishment proximity to God.<ref name="y361"/>
The second interpretation disapproves of Iblis's refusal to prostrate himself before Adam. Adam, as a reflection of God's names, is more complete than the angels.<ref name="y361"/> Iblis, being blind to the hidden reality of Adam, refuses to bow due to his own spiritual ignorance.<ref name="y361"/>
Satan's Monotheism (Tawḥīd-i Iblīs)
File:Adam honored.jpgAdam honoured by Angels – Persian miniature. Iblis, black-faced and without hair (top-right of the picture). He refuses to prostrate himself with the other Angels.
Satan's Monotheism is illustrated in a story attributed to Wahb ibn Munabbih. Accordingly, Moses met Iblis on the slopes of Sinai. When Moses asks Iblis for the reason behind his disobedience, Iblis replies that the command was a test.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This story is mentioned in the Kitāb al-Tawāsīn by the Persianpoetal-Hallaj, who also became known as one of Iblis's greatest defenders.<ref name="y361"/> The idea also inspired later famous theologians and Sufis, including Ahmad Ghazali and Attar of Nishapur.<ref name="t416">Template:Cite book</ref>
Ahmad Ghazali depicted Iblis as a paragon of self-sacrifice and devotion, stating: "Whoever doesn't learn monotheism from Satan is a heretic (zindīq)."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="t416"/> His student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir asserted that Iblis's disobedience must have been willed by God, or else God would be powerless, and a powerless being cannot be God.<ref name="Victoria Arakelova-2014">Template:Cite book</ref>
Other theologians and Sufis disapproved of Satan's Monotheism. Ibn Ghanim argues that Iblis is referring to God's predetermined judgement as an excuse to cover his unbelief.Template:Sfnp Furthermore, similar to Ruzbihan Baqli, he argues that Satan's Monotheism is a subtle deception by Iblis, made in order to evoke sympathies and doubt about God's message.Template:Sfnp
Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (1207–1273) argues that God's determinism can not be an excuse for one's own demise and failure.<ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp He invokes the analogy between Adam and Iblis to highlight the difference between a believer and an unbeliever: While both Adam and Iblis were destined to fall, Iblis and his offspring blamed God, while Adam pleaded for forgiveness, nonetheless. Rumi advises humans to do the same.<ref name="Latif-2009">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp In this context, Rumi declares that love is more important than intelligence<ref name="Basharin-2018"/>Template:Rp and states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In his story of Mu'awiya, in his Masnavi (Book 2), Mu'awiya realizes that he cannot outsmart Iblis's excuses, thus seeking refuge in God's protection. At this, Iblis confesses that he only attempts to trick people. Rumi reminds the reader that the Quran emphasizes that Iblis is the enemy of humanity and that there is thus no reason to have sympathies for him.<ref name="Rustom-2020"/>
Cosmic veil
File:Smithsonian - The Garden of Heavenly Creatures.jpgAtop a tree, sits the Queen of the winged maidens of paradise (pers. parī; roughly ar. houri). Her pavilion is a metaphor for God's abode. Its entrance is guarded by Iblis who prevents those who succumb to earthly urges from entering.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 335">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 335</ref>
Within the context of Sufi cosmology, the al-Insān al-Kāmil ("perfected human being") is a manifestation of God's attributes, not in the sense of incarnation, but as a mirror reflecting his divine attributes.<ref name="w670" /><ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 240–241</ref> In this interpretation, Iblis cannot comprehend the immanent aspect of God's attributes within Adam due to Iblis's own defective spiritual insight, and thus he refuses to bow down.<ref name="y361" /><ref name="auto">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion.: 246</ref><ref name="e363">Template:Cite book</ref> In his attempt to avoid idolatrous treatment of Adam, he becomes the supreme idolater, because he cannot see the immanent aspects of reality through idols (the exterior reality).<ref name="auto" /> Since he cannot perceive God's immanent aspect (love), he can only understand (and reflect) God's transcendent aspects (wrath).<ref name="auto" /><ref name="e363" /><ref name="w670" />
According to ibn Arabi and Jami, those who cannot comprehend the unity of God and separate God from his Creation are the disciples of Iblis, unable to discern the underlying, all-pervading divine principle.<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 245</ref> In his ignorance and damnation, Iblis hovers over the mere surface of visible things, and those he leads astray suffer the same fate.<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion.: 245-246</ref> Other Sufi authors, including Sana'i, 'Ayn al-Quzat, Ruzbihan, Attar, and Rumi, independently conceived a similar image of Iblis's function in the cosmos.<ref name="auto" />
In Sufi thought, Iblis is part of God's universe and does not form an exterior reality independent of God. He is God's veil, the visible universe itself, which hides the Godhead from the unworthy.<ref name="w670"/><ref name="auto"/> 'Ayn al-Quzat links the cosmic structure to the Shahada: "Lā (no) is the circle of negation. One must place his first step within this circle, but he should not stop here nor dwell here. (...)". Those who remain at the circle of lā, they worship the nafs (carnal desires) instead of God. Only those who proceed to ʾillā 'llāh (except God) surpass Iblis, the divine chamberlain.Template:Sfnp<ref name="k388">Template:Cite book</ref> As such, Iblis unknowingly symbolizes, suffers, and reflects the dark and wrathful aspect of God, uttering God's anger and executes God's justice.<ref name="auto"/>
Due to the similarities in function between Iblis's web and the Hindu concept of māyā, the seventeenth-century Mughal prince Dara Shikoh sought to reconcile the Upanishads with Sufi cosmology.<ref name="auto"/>
Narrative exegesis (Qiṣaṣ)
Template:Multiple imageQiṣaṣ is a form of exegesis by Muslim scholars focusing on establishing a coherent story from material of Islamic scripture (Quran, ḥadīṯ).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Öztürk">Template:Cite journal</ref> According to many of them, before Adam was created, the jinn, offspring of al-Jānn (الجان), lived on earth. First they were obedient, but over time immorality increased and, when they became infidels, God sent an army of angels, headed by Iblis, called "al-Jinn" (named after paradise, not the genus) to defeat them.<ref name="r895"/><ref name="Reynolds"/> These angels were created from nār as-samūm, while the rest of the angels from light, and the genus of jinn from mārijin min nār (smokeless fire).<ref name="Reynolds"/>
In reference to the interpretation of the events in Surah 2:30–34, when the angels complain about mankind's potential to shed blood and cause injustice, Islamic hagiographic narratives relate this to the story about angels' battle with the jinn.<ref name="Reynolds">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Tabari and al-Thaʿlabi explain that the angels feared that humanity will become as corrupt as the jinn.<ref name="Reynolds"/>
Some later traditions place Iblis among the genus of the jinn instead. In one narration of the Tarikh Khamis, among the masses of infidel jinn only Iblis dedicated his life to worship of God, withdrawing to a high mountain. The angels soon notice him and elevate him to the heavens, where he becomes one like them in worship.Template:Sfnp
With reference to Surah 76:1, Islamic narrative tradition considers Adam to have been created step-by-step, beginning as an inanimate body.<ref name="Chipman-2001">Template:Cite journal</ref> The story is mentioned by various scholars of the Sunni tradition, including Muqatil, Tabari, Mas'udi, Kisa'i, and Tha'labi.<ref name="Chipman-2001"/> According to the story, the angels passing by Adam were scared and Iblis was most afraid among them. To overcome his anxiety, he enters Adam and moves through the body.<ref name="Chipman-2001"/> He concludes that "this is hollow clay", whereas Iblis is "fire".<ref name="Chipman-2001"/> Since fire overcomes clay, he vows to destroy Adam like fire destroys clay:
You are nothing – because of his ringing – and you were made for nothing! If I am to rule over you, I will kill you, and if you are to rule over me, I will rebel against you.<ref name="Chipman-2001"/>
Some scholars (among them Thala'bi, Tabarsi,<ref name="i807">Template:Cite journal</ref> DiyarbakriTemplate:Sfnp) explain, with slight variations, Iblis's entry to the Garden of Eden by the aid of a serpent and a peacock. Some traditions have the Garden of Eden being warded by an angelic guardian. Thus, Iblis persuades a peacock to get help, by promising him that, if he enters the Garden, the beauty of the peacock will never decay thanks to the fruit of immortality. The peacock, unable to carry Iblis, persuades the serpent, who decides to slip Iblis by carrying him in his mouth. From the mouth of the serpent, Iblis speaks to Adam and Ḥawwāʾ.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Iblis is perhaps one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities in Islamic tradition and was depicted in multiple visual representations like the Quran and Manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari.Template:Sfnp Iblis was a unique individual, described as both a pious jinni and an angel before he fell from God's grace when he refused to bow before the prophet Adam. After this incident, Iblis turned into a shaytan.Template:Sfnp In visual appearance, Iblis's depiction was described in On the Monstrous in the Islamic Visual Tradition by Francesca Leoni as a being with a human-like body with flaming eyes, a tail, claws, and large horns on a grossly disproportionate large head.Template:Sfnp
Illustrations of Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him in human form wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban and long sleeves, signifying long lasting devotion to God.Template:Sfnp Only in one, he wears traditional Islamic head covering.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Most pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. In the manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In his demonic form, Iblis is portrayed similar to his cohorts (shayāṭīn) in Turko-Persian art as Asian demons (Dīv).<ref name="Dmitriy">Template:Cite journal</ref> They are bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European arts depicting devils by traits of pagan deities, Islamic arts portray the devils with features often similar to that of Hindu deities.<ref name="b778">Template:Cite book</ref>
In literature and film
The complexity of Iblis's character from the Quranic story had lasting influence on Islamic literature. It elaborates on the necessity of evil and Iblis's disobedience in creative retelling of the exegetical tradition.<ref name="Latif-2009"/>
Iblis and the angels feature in Hafez's poetry (1325–1390), collected in The Divān of Hafez. Hafez iterates that angels are incapable of love. They can merely praise the creator but without the passion of a human-being. When Iblis protests, either because he considers Adam's offspring unworthy or himself devoted to God alone, he is described as an imposter (mudda'ī). He claims to act for the sake of God's love, but is actually envious of mankind's exalted position. Hafez advises his audience not to reveal the secrets of love towards God to the imposter.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Muhammad Iqbal's Javid Nama deal in length with the question of Good and Evil.<ref name="Schimmel">Template:Cite book</ref> As such, it is little surprising that Iblis plays a significant role in his works. Similar to Goethe’sMephistopheles, Iblis is a necessary obstacle for man to overcome.<ref name="Schimmel"/> Only when man eventually resists and overcomes Iblis, he can finally prostrate himself and find salvation.<ref name="Schimmel"/>Template:Sfnp
Egyptian novelist Tawfiq al-Hakim's ash-Shahid (1953) describes the necessity of Iblis's evil for the world. One day, Iblis regrets his rebellion and consults religious authorities (the Pope, a Rabbi, and the head of the al-Azhar) in order to seek forgiveness. After Iblis's requests were rejected by all of them, he turns to the angel Gabriel, but is rejected again. Then Iblis realizes the necessity of his nature in order for good to exist and exclaims: "I am a martyr!".<ref name="g427">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="m140">Template:Cite book</ref>
A demon called "Semum", from the eponymous 2008 Turkish Horror MovieSemum, embodies qualities attributed to both Iblis and his offspring. Alluding to the Quran, Semum blames God for abandoning demon-kind after creating humanity and vows to destroy God's newest creatures.<ref name="y167"/>Template:Rp Referring to the Quranic cycle of God creating and then destroying his creatures, the "Semum" argues that humanity will be eventually abandoned by God, and should worship Iblis instead.<ref name="y167"/>Template:Rp
Iblis himself does not appear, but his presence is implied throughout the movie. Described by his devilish followers, he is the master of the "World of Fire". On the other hand, the exorcist (representing God) describes Iblis imprisoned in the lowest pit of hell.<ref name="y167"/>Template:Rp The movie implies Sufistic metaphysics by asserting that "God is everywhere". The demon denies God's omnipresence by asserting that hell belongs to Iblis. His dualistic beliefs are disproven when God intervenes on behalf of the exorcist in hell.<ref name="y167"/>Template:Rp Iblis creates merely the illusion of God's absence.<ref name="y167"/>Template:Rp
The fifth season of the American TV show Supernatural features Lucifer as the main antagonist. Pavel Nosachev, argues that, despite its Christian roots, the antagonist of the season bears resemblance to the Quranic Iblis.<ref name="m377">Template:Cite journal</ref> Lucifer reveals his backstory in the fourth episode,<ref name="m377"/> declaring:
You know why God cast me down? Because I loved Him, more than anything, and then God created you, the little hairless apes; and then He asked all of us to bow down before you, to love you more than Him. And I said: ‘Father, I can’t.’<ref name="m377"/>
The JapaneseMangaBlue Exorcist features Iblis as one of the Eight Demon Kings, though the character bears little similarity to the Quranic Iblis apart from an affinity for fire.
