Iteration mark
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Iteration marks are characters or punctuation marks that represent a duplicated character or word.
Chinese
In Chinese, Template:Lang or Template:Unichar (usually appearing as Template:Lang, equivalent to the modern ideograph Template:Char) or Template:Lang is used in casual writing to represent a doubled character. However, it is not used in formal writing anymore, and it rarely appeared in printed matter. In a tabulated table or list, vertical repetition can be represented by a ditto mark (Template:Lang).
History
Iteration marks have been occasionally used for more than two thousand years in China. The example image shows an inscription in bronze script, a variety of formal writing dating to the Zhou dynasty, that ends with Template:Lang, where the small Template:Lang ("two") is used as iteration marks in the phrase Template:Lang ("descendants to use and to treasure").
Malayo-Polynesian languages
Template:See also In Filipino, Indonesian, and Malay, words that are repeated can be shortened with the use of numeral "2". For example, the Malay Template:Transliteration ("words", from single Template:Transliteration) can be shortened to Template:Transliteration, and Template:Transliteration ("to walk around", from single Template:Transliteration) can be shortened to Template:Transliteration. The usage of "2" can be also replaced with superscript "Template:Sup" (e.g. Template:Transliteration for Template:Transliteration). The sign may also be used for reduplicated compound words with slight sound changes, for example Template:Transliteration for Template:Transliteration ("commotion"). Suffixes may be added after "2", for example in the word Template:Transliteration ("Western in nature", from the basic word Template:Transliteration ("West") with the prefix Template:Transliteration and suffix Template:Transliteration).<ref name="polisieyd">Template:Cite web</ref>
The use of this mark dates back to the time when these languages were written with Arabic script, specifically the Jawi or Pegon varieties. Using the Arabic numeral Template:Lang, words such as Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration, butterfly) can be shortened to Template:Lang. The use of Arabic numeral Template:Lang was also adapted to several Brahmi derived scripts of the Malay archipelago, notably Javanese,<ref name=uni>Template:Cite web</ref> Sundanese,<ref name=uni>Template:Cite web</ref> Lontara,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Makassaran.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As the Latin alphabet was introduced to the region, the Western-style Arabic numeral "2" came to be use for Latin-based orthography.
The use of "2" as an iteration mark was official in Indonesia up to 1972, as part of the Republican Spelling System. Its usage was discouraged when the Enhanced Indonesian Spelling System was adopted, and even though it is commonly found in handwriting, old signage or text messages, it is considered to be inappropriate for formal writing and documents.<ref name="polisieyd"/>
Japanese
Japanese has various iteration marks for its three writing systems, namely kanji, hiragana, and katakana, but only the kanji iteration mark (Template:Lang) is commonly used today.Template:Citation needed
In Japanese, iteration marks called Template:Nihongo3, Template:Nihongo, Template:Nihongo, or Template:Nihongo3 are used to represent a duplicated character representing the same morpheme. For example, Template:Transliteration, "people", is usually written Template:Lang, using the kanji for Template:Lang with an iteration mark, Template:Lang, rather than Template:Lang, using the same kanji twice. The use of two kanji in place of an iteration mark is allowed, and in simple cases may be used due to being easier to write.
In contrast, while Template:Nihongo3 is written with the iteration mark, as the morpheme is duplicated, Template:Nihongo3 is written with the character duplicated, because it represents different morphemes (Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration). Further, while Template:Transliteration can in principle be written as Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration cannot be written as Template:Lang, since that would imply repetition of the sound as well as the character. In potentially confusing examples such as this, readings can be disambiguated by writing words out in hiragana, so Template:Transliteration is often found as Template:Lang or Template:Lang rather than Template:Lang.
Sound changes can occur in duplication, which is not reflected in writing; examples include Template:Nihongo and Template:Nihongo being pronounced Template:Nihongo (Template:Transliteration) or Template:Nihongo and Template:Nihongo being pronounced Template:Nihongo (gemination), though this is also pronounced Template:Transliteration.
Kanji
The formal name of the kanji repetition symbol (Template:Lang) is Template:Nihongo, literally "same character mark", but it is sometimes called Template:Nihongo because it looks like the katakana Template:Nihongo and Template:Nihongo. This symbol originates from a simplified form of the character Template:Lang, a variant of Template:Nihongo3 written in the cursive script style.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Although Japanese kanji iteration marks are borrowed from Chinese, the grammatical function of duplication differs, as do the conventions on the use of these characters.
While Japanese does not have a grammatical plural form per se, some kanji can be reduplicated to indicate plurality (as a collective noun, not many individuals). This differs from Chinese, which normally repeats characters only for the purposes of adding emphasis, although there are some exceptions (e.g., Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration, "person"; Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration, "everybody").
However, for some words duplication may alter the meaning:
- Template:Nihongo3; Template:Nihongo3
- Template:Nihongo3; Template:Nihongo3
- Template:Nihongo3; Template:Nihongo3
Using Template:Lang instead of repeating kanji is usually the preferred form, with two restrictions:
- the reading must be the same, possibly with sound change (as above), and
- the repetition must be within a single word.
When the reading is different, the second kanji is often simply written out to avoid confusion. Examples of such include:
The repetition mark is not used in every case where two identical characters appear side by side, but only where the repetition itself is etymologically significant—when the repetition is part of a single word. Where a character ends up appearing twice as part of a compound, it is usually written out in full:
- Template:Nihongo3, from Template:Lang + Template:Lang ("democracy" + "principle"); the abbreviated Template:Lang is only occasionally seen. One notable exception is in signs for Template:Nihongo – the name of neighborhoods often end in Template:Nihongo, which is then suffixed with Template:Lang yielding Template:Nihongo, which is then informally abbreviated to Template:Lang, despite the word break.
Similarly, in certain Chinese borrowings, it is generally preferred to write out both characters, as in Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration Chinese multiplication table) or Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration dan dan noodles), though in practice Template:Lang is often used.
In vertical writing, the character Template:Lang (Unicode U+303B), a cursive derivative of Template:Lang ("two", as in Chinese, above), can be employed instead, although this is increasingly rare.
Kana
Kana uses different iteration marks; one for hiragana, Template:Lang, and one for katakana, Template:Lang. The hiragana iteration mark is seen in some personal names like Template:Lang Template:Transliteration or Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, and it forms part of the formal name of the car company Template:Nihongo3.
Unlike the kanji iteration marks, which do not reflect sound changes, kana iteration marks closely reflect sound, and the kana iteration marks can be combined with the Template:Transliteration voicing mark to indicate that the repeated syllable should be voiced, for example Template:Lang Template:Transliteration. If the first syllable is already voiced, for example Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, the voiced repetition mark still needs to be used: Template:Lang rather than Template:Lang, which would be read as Template:Transliteration.
While widespread in old Japanese texts, the kana iteration marks are generally not used in modern Japanese outside proper names, though they may appear in informal handwritten texts.
Repeating multiple characters
In addition to the single-character iteration marks, there are also two-character-sized repeat marks, which are used to repeat the preceding word or phrase. They are used in vertical writing only, and they are effectively obsolete in modern Japanese. The vertical kana repeat marks Template:Lang (unvoiced) and Template:Lang (voiced) resemble the hiragana character Template:Nihongo, giving them their name, Template:Nihongo. They stretch to fill the space typically occupied by two characters, but may indicate a repetition of more than two characters. For example, the duplicated phrase Template:Lang may be repeated as Template:Lang. If a Template:Transliteration (voiced mark) is added, it applies to the first sound of the repeated word; this is written as Template:Lang. For example, Template:Transliteration could be written horizontally as Template:Lang; the voiced iteration mark only applies to the first sound Template:Lang.
In addition to the single-character representations Template:Unichar and Template:Unichar, Unicode provides the half-character versions Template:Unichar, Template:Unichar and Template:Unichar, which can be stacked to render both voiced and unvoiced repeat marks:
〳 〵 |
〴 〵 |
As support for these is limited, the ordinary forward slash Template:Lang and backward slash Template:Lang are occasionally used as substitutes.
Alternatively, multiple single-character iteration marks can be used, as in Template:Nihongo or Template:Nihongo. This practice is also uncommon in modern writing, though it is occasionally seen in horizontal writing as a substitute for the vertical repeat mark.Template:Dubious
Unlike the single-kana iteration mark, if the first kana is voiced, the unvoiced version Template:Lang alone will repeat the voiced sound.
Further, if Template:Transliteration are present, then no iteration mark should be used, as in Template:Lang. This is prescribed by the Japanese Ministry of Education in its 1981 Cabinet notification prescribes, rule #6.Template:Citation needed
Nuosu
In the Nuosu language, Template:Lang is used to represent a doubled sound, for example Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration. It is used in all forms of writing.
Tangut
Template:Contains special characters In Tangut manuscripts the sign Template:Tangut is sometimes used to represent a doubled character; this sign does not occur in printed texts. In Unicode this character is Template:Mono Template:Smallcaps all, in the Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation block.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
In Egyptian hieroglyphs, the signs: <hiero>zp:Z1*Z1</hiero> — Template:Transliteration, literally meaning "two times", repeat the previous sign or word.
Khmer, Thai and Lao
In Khmer, Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang) as for Thai, Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang) and Lao, Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang) represent a repeated syllable where as it besides the word. This used to be written as numeral two (Template:Lang) and the form changed over time. A repeated word could be used either, to demonstrate plurality, to emphasize or to soften the meaning of the original word.
Ditto mark
Template:Main In English, Spanish, French, Italian, German, Portuguese, Czech, Polish and Turkish lists, the ditto mark (″) represents a word repeated from the equivalent position in the line above it; or an evenly-spaced row of ditto marks represents any number of words repeated from above. For example:
- Two pounds of lettuce
- Three ″ ″ tomatoes
- Four ″ ″ onions
- One pound ″ carrots
This is common in handwriting and formerly in typewritten texts.
In Unicode, the ditto mark of Western languages has been defined to be equivalent to the Template:Unichar.Template:Citation needed The separate character Template:Unichar is to be used in the CJK scripts only.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The convention in Polish handwriting, Czech, Swedish, and Austrian German is to use a ditto mark on the baseline together with horizontal lines spanning the extent of the word repeated, for example:
Superscript numeral
In western mathematics, the superscript numeral originated as a notation for exponentiation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Over time its meaning expanded to represent repeated function application as well, effectively making it a notation for marking iteration.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This sense was eventually borrowed in non mathematical text to represent repeated symbols, especially to mark repeated letters in acronyms. The superscript is occasionally left out, either colloquially or in the formal representation of the acronym, due to either typographic or stylistic concerns. Notable examples include the bus protocol I²C, and the fan-fiction hosting website AO3.