Iwakura Tomomi

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Template:Short description Template:Family name hatnote Template:Multiple issues Template:Infobox person Template:Nihongo was a Japanese statesman during the Bakumatsu and Meiji period.<ref>Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Iwakura Tomomi" in Template:Google books.</ref> He was one of the leading figures of the Meiji Restoration, which saw the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate, the restoration of Japan's monarchy, and the abolition of feudalism, the domain system, and the samurai class.

Born to a lesser noble family, he was adopted by leading court noble Tomoyasu Iwakura (岩倉 具康) in 1838.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite web</ref> In 1854, he became Imperial Chamberlain.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite web</ref> Intending to bridge the divide between the shogunate and the imperial court, Iwakura openly supported marriage between Tokugawa Iemochi and Emperor Komei’s younger sister Princess Kazunomiya. This earned him derision as a shogunate supporter and in 1862, he was exiled.<ref name=":4" /> Iwakura returned to the court in 1867.<ref name=":4" /> He became the liaison between the court and the anti-Tokugawa movement and played a central role in the new Meiji government. He successfully opposed aggressive policies in Korea in the crisis of 1873, and was nearly assassinated by his enemies.

From 1871 to 1873, he led the 50-member Iwakura Mission for 18 months in Europe and America, studying modern institutions, technology, and diplomacy. The Mission promoted many key reforms that quickly modernized Japan. He promoted a strong imperial system along Western lines, and played a central role in creating financial institutions for the nation.

The discontinued 500 Yen banknote issued by the Bank of Japan carried his portrait. The note was first issued in 1951 and was circulated until 1994.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Early life

Iwakura was born in Kyoto,<ref>Template:Cite EB1911</ref> the second son of low-ranking courtier and nobleman, Template:Nihongo. Through his mother, he was a first cousin of Emperor Ninkō<ref name=descent/> and descended from the 10th-century Emperor Murakami.<ref name="EB1911">Template:Cite EB1911</ref> His childhood name was Kanemaru but fellow court nobles called him Iwakichi (typically thought of as a commoner's name)Template:Citation needed. Confucian scholar Fusehara Nobuharu taught him Confucianism from childhood and suggested that Template:Nihongo adopt Kanemaru as his child.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Tomoyasu did this In 1836, giving Kanemaru his own family name. In 1838, the boy changed his name from Kanemaru to Tomomi. In bakumatsu, most of the 137 court nobles had a long tradition. In contrast, the Iwakura house had only become independent from the Koga house in the early Edo period.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> This newness gave the Iwakura house lower status. It did not have a family business, so they also had little money.<ref name=":0" /> Iwakura once showed his daring and disregard for the old customs of the nobility by making his home available as a gambling house in order to earn money.<ref name=":0" /> In 1839, when he was 14 years old, he had a coming-of-age ceremony and started to get involved in politics.<ref name=":1" /> He was trained by the kampaku Takatsukasa Masamichi and wrote the opinion for the imperial court reformation, arguing that the reserve fund should be used to expand and reform Gakushūin, and that promotion should be based on merit. In 1854 he became a chamberlain to Emperor Kōmei, his first cousin once removed.

As court noble

As with most other courtiers in Kyoto, Iwakura opposed the Tokugawa shogunate's plans to end Japan's national isolation policy and to open Japan to foreign countries. When Hotta Masayoshi, a high ranking official of the Tokugawa government came to Kyoto to obtain imperial permission to sign the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan) in 1858, Iwakura was among 88 courtiers who opposed the treaty and attempted to hinder negotiations between the court and the shogunate.

Kujō Hisatada, the Kanpaku, or chief minister to the emperor, supported the shogunate's decision to sign the treaty. In order to prevent the signing, the 88 courtiers forced an audience with the Kanpaku. The Kanpaku acquiesced. This incident is called the demonstration of 88 retainers of the Imperial court.<ref name=":1" /> Following this incident, Iwakura published his opinion, expressing his concern that before any treaty could be signed, Japan needed to learn about the situation and customs of foreign countries.<ref name=":0" /> In 1858, Ii Naosuke took power over the shogunate as Tairō in a bid to squander the political aspirations of the Mito Tokugawa faction. He signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce without asking Emperor Kōmei, angering the emperor, and souring relations between the shogunate and the court.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1" />

Ii Naosuke was assassinated in 1860. His rule had lasted only 20 months and served to alienate not only the imperial court, but a number of key figures whose cooperation was essential to maintaining the Tokugawa system of governance. His death necessitated rapprochement between the court and the shogunate, giving form to the Kōbu gattai movement. Following Ii's assassination, two Senior Councilors, Andō Nobumasa and Kuze Hirochika, came to power within the shogunate, determined to reach conciliation with the court. Conciliation was to be achieved through the marriage of the Shōgun Tokugawa Iemochi and Princess Kazu-no-Miya Chikako, the younger half sister of the Emperor Kōmei.<ref name=":6">Lee, Edwin B. “The Kazunomiya Marriage. Alliance Between the Court and the Bakufu.” Monumenta Nipponica, vol. 22, no. 3/4, 1967, pp. 290–304. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2383071. Accessed 18 Nov. 2025.</ref> The idea for this arrangement had originated with the Kanpaku, Kujō Hisatada in 1858 and was heavily negotiated until it was formally proposed to the imperial court by Kujō on 19 June, 1860.<ref name=":6" />

Emperor Kōmei was opposed to this request as Kazunomiya was already engaged to Prince Arisugawa Taruhito. However, engagement presents had not yet been exchanged, and, the shogunate argued, the court could easily request that the prince rescind his claim. Presented with this suggestion on 21 July, 1860, the emperor called on Iwakura as a confidant and requested his opinion. Iwakura suggested that the emperor allow the marriage with the condition that the shogunate take steps to rescind all treaties with foreign powers, thereby recognizing the dominance of the court in diplomatic affairs.<ref name=":6" />

Emperor Kōmei announced his sister's engagement to the shogun on 30 November. Having influenced the emperor's decision to go forward with the marriage, Iwakura was among the courtiers who traveled with the princess from Kyoto to Edo. On 22 December, 1861, Iwakura met with Senior Councilors Andō Nobumasa and Kuze Hirochika. He delivered a letter from the emperor criticizing the shogun's hesitation in dealing with the foreign threat.<ref name=":6" />

Iwakura's purpose in this meeting was twofold: Primarily, he was to push for action to be taken towards the eventual expulsion of the foreigners. He was also tasked with obtaining the rescission of punishments meted out against courtiers during Ii Naosuke's 1858-59 purge. To gain capitulation on both of these issues, Iwakura leveraged a third; the rumors of a coup against Emperor Kōmei. Ando and Kuze, among other high ranking officials of the new shogunate, were unknown entities outside of Edo, and were widely believed by imperial courtiers to be capable of the authoritarianism that characterized Ii Naosuke's governance. The shogunate officials on the other hand, did not find themselves capable of a coup, as evinced by their insistence on the union in the first place. Iwakura himself may or may not have found the rumors convincing. Regardless, when Ando and Kuze denied any conspiracy against the emperor, Iwakura pushed for a signed note from the shogun himself, corroborating their claim. Ando and Kuze would not acquiesce to this, but offered their cooperation on the issue of remitting the punishments of the courtiers.<ref name=":6" />

Iwakura arrived back in Kyoto on 24 January, 1862 and immediately entered mourning for his mother, whose death he learned of during his return journey. As such, he was unable to deliver the news of his victory directly to the emperor but was nevertheless, amply rewarded.<ref name=":6" />

Those who supported the more radical Sonnō jōi movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate and reinstate the power of the emperor saw Iwakura as a supporter of the Shogunate, and put pressure on the court to expel him. Emperor Kōmei insisted that Iwakura was innocent, but could not stop those who would threaten him, including Takechi Hanpeita.<ref name=":1" /> Iwakura was forced to resign from the imperial court and go into hiding.<ref name=":4" />

In exile

A traditional Japanese home, made entirely of wood with a thatched straw roof. A stone lantern sits in the foreground while a more modern building with glass windows can be seen in the corner of the background.
The Former Retreat of Tomomi Iwakura (岩倉具視幽棲旧跡) in Iwakura, Sakyo Ward, Kyoto City. It is open to the public for a fee. The building in the background is Iwakura Hospital.

Iwakura's exile lasted from 1862 to 1867. Initially, he left for the Nishigamo district’s Reigen Temple, before moving on to Saiho Temple. Ultimately, he borrowed the abandoned home of a man by the name of Fujiya Togoro in Northern Kyoto's Iwakura Village until 1867.<ref name=":4" />

During his exile, Iwakura wrote many opinions and sent them to the Court or his political companions in Satsuma Domain. For example, in 1865, Iwakura showed 'Sōrimeichū'(叢裡鳴虫), a written opinion, to Ōkubo Toshimichi and Komatsu Tatewaki from Satsuma clans.<ref name=":1" /> He used this title to compare himself to an insect in the grasses. Moreover, he sent 'Zoku：Sōrimeichū'(続・叢裡鳴虫) to Ōkubo and Komatsu. He claimed the importance of national unity for external crises. He relied on Satsuma clans because he found that they were capable people. Also, people from Satsuma clans had connections with the imperial court, so Iwakura tried to get them to send his written opinions to the imperial court.<ref name=":0" /> Responses of Nijō Nariyuki, a Kanpaku, and Satsuma clans were subtle. Iwakura was away from politics because of the penalty, so there was a difference between the Iwakura's thoughts and the actual political situation.<ref name=":1" /> In 1866 when Shōgun Iemochi died, Iwakura attempted to have the Court seize political initiative. He tried to gather daimyō under the name of the Court but failed. When the Emperor Kōmei died the next year, there was a rumor Iwakura had plotted to murder the emperor with poison, but he escaped arrest. After the Kinmon incident, he returned to normal life, and his innocence was proved.<ref name=":0" />

On October 15th, 1867, the shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu returned his power to the imperial court. Yoshinobu worried about the external crisis and recognized the importance of national unity. In this situation, Ōkubo planned the coup that abolished the shogunate and sekkan systems.<ref name=":1" /> On December 8th, Iwakura participated in the kogosho meeting and talked about the disposal of Yoshinobu. During this meeting, Yamauchi Yōdō shouted, claiming that they should let Yoshinobu participate in this meeting and criticized a coup.<ref name=":0" /> It is a famous episode that Iwakura scolded Yamauchi because his attitude was rude, but this episode is a fiction. In fact, Iwakura could not easily convince Yamauchi, and their discussion was continued for the long term. Finally, Iwakura and Ōkubo convinced those who opposed the disposal of Yoshinobu.<ref name=":1" />

With Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori, on January 3, 1868, he engineered the seizure of the Kyoto Imperial Palace by forces loyal to Satsuma and Chōshū, thus initiating the Meiji Restoration. He commissioned Imperial banners with the sun and moon on a red field, which helped ensure that the encounters of the Meiji Restoration were generally bloodless affairs.

Meiji bureaucrat

Iwakura Mission. The head of the mission was Iwakura Tomomi, shown in the picture wearing traditional Japanese clothing

After the establishment of the Meiji government, Iwakura played an important role due to the influence and trust he had with Emperor Meiji. He put forward the emperor's directly ruled government. He was largely responsible for the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath of 1868, and the subject abolition of the han system. Also, he established Dajō-kan. Moreover, he planned to move the emperor from Kyoto to Tokyo to make a new political environment. Some court nobles in Kyoto criticized these reforms, but he promoted these restorations with Sanjō Sanetomi despite their opposition.<ref name=":1" />

Soon after his appointment as Minister of the Right in 1871, he led the two-year around-the-world journey known as the Iwakura mission, visiting the United States and several countries in Europe with the purpose of renegotiating the unequal treaties and gathering information to help effect the modernization of Japan. American newspapers reported that a visit by Iwakura was as important as a visit by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He failed when he discussed the revision of the unequal treaty with the U.S. president. The U.S. president pointed out that Iwakura did not have a commission of full powers. Ōkubo and Itō immediately returned to Japan on March 24 to get a commission of full powers and then returned to the United States on June 17. Despite their efforts, the United States was no longer interested in the revision of the unequal treaty at that time.<ref name=":0" />

During his travels, Iwakura was surprised at the economic prosperity he observed in western countries. He was especially interested in the railways. Also, he learned the importance of religious problems in the United States and he thought that the prohibition of Christianity was an obstacle to change the unequal treaties. Besides, he felt the danger of rapid Westernization, because he saw and learned about the merits and demerits of Westernization.<ref name=":1" /> At first, this trip was planned for 10 months and a half, but it took a year and 10 months in the end.<ref name=":0" /> A celebration was held in Manchester and Liverpool in 1997 to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the Iwakura Mission.

Before the return of the Iwakura mission, the dispatch of Saigō to Korea was decided in a cabinet meeting. Generally, people thought that the dispatch of Saigō was too dangerous, but Saigō persisted in his decision.<ref name=":1" /> On his return to Japan in 1873, he was just in time to prevent an invasion of Korea (Seikanron). Iwakura opposed the dispatch because Japan also faced foreign issues concerning Karafuto and Taiwan. Also, Iwakura wanted to prevent the dispatch of Saigō to avoid foreign wars. Realizing that Japan was not in any position to challenge the western powers in its present state, he advocated strengthening the imperial institution, which he felt could be accomplished through a written constitution and a limited form of parliamentary democracy. Ōkubo supported Iwakura's idea. In the next meeting, Saigō was absent to imply his disposal in case his claim would not be accepted. Sanjō Sanetomi, a prime minister was surprised about it and suddenly changed his opinion from the opposition of dispatch to the acceptance of dispatch. A lot of members including Iwakura criticized the sudden mind change of Sanjō, and they requested their disposal. Sanjō panicked and he became unable to work because he wanted to avoid every member's disposal. Instead of Sanjō, Iwakura became the substitute of the prime minister and prevented the dispatch of Saigō. Due to this decision, some people had complaints, and Iwakura was attacked by nine people led by Takechi Kumakichi in Kuichigaizaka, Akasaka. He was slightly injured but severely damaged mentally. (Kuichigai Incident)<ref name=":0" />

Iwakura c. 1880s

In 1873, Kido and Ōkubo raised written opinions about a constitution. Both opinions said that Japan should make a constitution as soon as possible, so to establishing a constitution became an urgent issue in Japan.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref> In this situation, Ōkubo was assassinated in 1878, and Iwakura had to choose Itō Hirobumi or Ōkuma Shigenobu as a successor of Ōkubo. Itō wanted an absolute monarchy as in Germany while Ōkuma favored a constitutional monarchy as exemplified by the United Kingdom. Ultimately, Iwakura chose Itō and the German model as the basis for Japan's constitution.<ref name=":0" />Template:Additional citations needed

On 19 April 1876, Iwakura became the director of the Peerage Hall. However, in the early Meiji period, it was not clear what exactly they were doing, and as a result they were more independent than they were later on, and conflicts often occurred, especially between those from feudal lords and those from court nobles. It was like that. However, the nobility that Iwakura had in mind was a European-style aristocracy whose mission was solely to support the imperial family. Therefore, it was necessary to make all Chinese people understand that petty conflicts based on the old framework were pointless.

However, from around 1880 (Meiji 13), the Freedom and People's Rights Movement gained momentum, and discussions on establishing a constitution accelerated. He ordered Inoue Kowashi to begin work on a constitution in late June 1881, and ordered Itō Hirobumi to Europe to study various European systems.Template:Citation needed In March 1882, Itō departed for Europe. Iwakura had high expectations for the investigation of Itō.<ref name=":0" /> On the other hand, during the dispatch of Itō, Iwakura worried that Itō might be really influenced by Germany. Although Iwakura accepted to make a constitution based on the Germany system, he wanted to make a constitution unique to Japan. Also, Iwakura wanted to cherish the Japanese tradition and emperor system.<ref name=":1" /> From such an idea, in 1882, He established an Internal regulation interrogation station to investigate imperial ceremonies and Japanese tradition, and offered the install of the National history compilation stations in 1883. This station aimed to translate Japanese history into American.<ref name=":1" />

Restoration of Kyoto

In 1881, Iwakura established a society for the restoration of Kyoto following the transfer of Japan's capital to Tokyo.<ref name=":5" /> Undeterred by his declining health, in January of 1883, Iwakura issued a paper titled Kyoto Kögü hozon ni kanshi ikensho (京都 厚遇 保存 に 関し 意見書) or, "On preserving the Kyoto palace," in which he constructed a plan for the rehabilitation of Kyoto as an ancient capital differentiated from Nara. He argued for future imperial enthronements to be hosted in Kyoto, as well as for the revival of the Kyoto Kamo festival.<ref>Takagi, Hiroshi. “The Buddhist Faith of the Japanese Imperial Family after the Meiji Restoration.” Japan Review, no. 25, 2013, pp. 21–32. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41959184. Accessed 18 Nov. 2025.</ref>

Death and Legacy

Emperor Meiji visiting a sick Iwakura by Kita Renzō

Iwakura was unable to witness Ito Hirobumi's return to Japan or the enactment of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan.

On June 12, 1883, Iwakura experienced sudden chest pain and could no longer eat. Advanced esophageal cancer had narrowed his airway to the point that food could not pass through. The Meiji Emperor sent his personal physician, Erwin Bälz, to examine Iwakura. The doctor remained by Iwakura's side, recording the progress of his cancer.<ref name=":7">Shizu, SAKAI, and Marie Speed. “Cancer Patients in the Meiji Period.” Tales of Plague and Pestilence: A History of Disease in Japan, Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2025, pp. 170–74. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.23996202.24. Accessed 19 Nov. 2025.</ref>

Together, Balz and Iwakura boarded a ship from Kyoto to Tokyo. During the journey, Iwakura, understanding the hopelessness of his situation, requested that the doctor keep him alive long enough for Ito Hirobumi to return from Berlin with a new constitution for Japan. Iwakura wished to communicate his will to Ito in person. Unfortunately, he soon became completely unable to eat and was consequently wasting away.<ref name=":7" />

The emperor personally visited his cousin and old friend on July 19, and was moved to tears at his condition.<ref name=":0" />

Iwakura died the following day at the age of 57. Unable to wait any longer for Ito's return, Iwakura asked for statesman Inoue Kowashi, to whom he confided instead. Bälz and Inoue were with Iwakura until the end of his life.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> He was given a state funeral, the first ever given by the imperial government,<ref name=":0" /> and was buried in Asamadai, Minami-Shinagawa.<ref name=":1" />

A poem by Iwakura was included in the 1942 Template:Interlanguage link.

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Personal life

Iwakura Tomomi's height was about 160cm. He used to like Japanese sake and drank around 90 ml, three times a day. However, because of his health condition and food restrictions, he could drink western wine only instead of Japanese sake. During his life after retirement, he did not exercise at all, and ate very little to the extent he was compared to a bird. Iwakura was very particular about what to eat, and was fond of eating fish, meat,Template:Clarify and vegetables, rather than beef and chicken. He also liked the cuisine of Kyoto, and turtle cuisine was one of his favorites.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>

Iwakura was a lifelong patron of Noh theater. In 1876, he organized the first tenran-no (a performance in the presence of the emperor) of the Meiji era at his private residence. Iwakura's daugher-in-law, Iwakura Chisako (1861 - 1922), was among the first female amateur practitioners of Noh as the artform gained popularity in Tokyo at the end of the century.<ref>Geilhorn, Barbara. “From Private ‘Zashiki’ to the Public Stage: Female Spaces in Early Twentieth-Century ‘Nō.’” Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 32, no. 2, 2015, pp. 440–63. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24737040. Accessed 19 Nov. 2025.</ref>

He had a wife, named Mineko, but she died on October 24, 1874. After Mineko's death, he remarried Makiko Noguchi. He is an ancestor to actor Ken Uehara, singer Yūzō Kayama, and actress Emi Ikehata.<ref name=":2" />

Honours

On the old 500 yen note

From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

Decorations

Order of precedence

  • Junior fifth rank (28th day, 10th month of the ninth year of Tenpo (1838))
  • Fifth rank (Fourth day, sixth month of the 12th year of Tenpo (1841))
  • Senior fifth rank (18th day, second month of the second year of Koka (1845))
  • Fourth rank (10th day, sixth month of the seventh year of Ansei (1854))
  • Senior fourth rank (Fifth day, first month of the second year of Man'en (1861))
  • Third rank (Second day, second month of the fourth year of Keio (1868))
  • Senior second rank (25th day, first month of the second year of Meiji (1869))
  • First rank (18 May 1876)
  • Senior first rank (20 July 1885; posthumous)


Ancestry

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Notes

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References

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