Justo Rufino Barrios

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Justo Rufino Barrios Auyón (19 July 1835 – 2 April 1885) was a Guatemalan politician and military general who served as President of Guatemala from 1873 to his death in 1885. He was known for his liberal reforms and his attempts to reunite Central America.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> During his rule, Guatemala had a close relationship with the United States.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Early life

Barrios' house in San Lorenzo
File:Francisca Aparicio y Mérida, marquesa consorte de Vistabella.jpg
Francisca Aparicio y Auyón, 1892. Francisca was Barrios' wife. After his death, she left Guatemala for New York City, where she enjoyed the large inheritance her husband had left after his death.

Barrios was known from his youth for his intellect and energy, went to Guatemala City to study law, and became a lawyer in 1862.

Rise to power

In 1867, revolt broke out in western Guatemala, which many residents wished to return to its former status of an independent state as Los Altos. Barrios joined with the rebels in Quetzaltenango, and soon proved himself a capable military leader, and in time gained the rank of general in the rebel army.

File:J. R. Barrios (2).jpg
Barrios (Circa 1871)

In July 1871, Barrios, together with other generals and dissidents, issued the "Plan for the Fatherland" proposing to overthrow Guatemala's long entrenched Conservadora (conservative) administration; soon after, they succeeded in doing so, and General García Granados was declared president and Barrios commander of the armed forces. While Barrios was back in Quetzaltenago, García Granados was seen as weak by his own party members and was asked to call for elections, as the general consent was that Barrios would make a better president.Template:Citation needed Barrios was elected president in 1873.

Government

File:Penitenciaria1892.jpg
Guatemalan National Penitentiary, built by Barrios to incarcerate and torture his political enemies.

The Conservative government in Honduras gave military backing to a group of Guatemalan Conservatives wishing to take back the government, so Barrios declared war on the Honduran government. At the same time, Barrios, together with President Luis Bogran of Honduras, declared an intention to reunify the old United Provinces of Central America.Template:Clarify

During his time in office, Barrios continued with the liberal reforms initiated by Miguel García Granados, but he was more aggressive in implementing them. A summary of his reforms is:Template:Sfn

  • Definitive separation between church and state: he expelled the regular clergy such as Morazán had done in 1829 and confiscated their properties.
Properties confiscated from the clergy by the Barrios regimeTemplate:Sfn
Regular order Coat of arms Clergy type Confiscated properties
Order of Preachers File:Seal of the Dominican Order.svg Regular
  • Monasteries
  • Large extensions of farm land
  • Sugar mills
  • Indian doctrines<ref group=lower-alpha>These were communities of native Guatemalans that worked for the farms and sugar mills of the friars.</ref>
Mercedarians File:Coat of Arms of the Mercedarians.svg Regular
  • Monasteries
  • Large extensions of farm land
  • Sugar mills
  • Indian doctrines
Society of Jesus File:Ihs-logo.svg Regular The Jesuits had been expelled from the Spanish colonies back in 1765 and did not return to Guatemala until 1852. By 1871, they did not have major possessions.
Recoletos File:Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum, Propaganda Fide seal.png Regular
  • Monasterires
Conceptionists File:OrdoIC.jpg Regular
  • Monasteries
  • Large extensions of farm land
Archdiocese of Guatemala Secular School and Trentin Seminar of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción
Congregation of the Oratory File:S. F. Nerist.JPG Secular
  • Forbid mandatory tithing to weaken secular clergy members and the archbishop.
  • Established civil marriage as the only official one in the country
  • Secular cemeteries
  • Civil records superseded religious ones
  • Established secular education across the country
  • Established free and mandatory elementary schools
  • Closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos and in its place created the secular National University.Template:Sfn

Barrios had a National Congress totally pledged to his will, and therefore was able to enact a new constitution in 1879, which allowed him to be reelected as president for another six-year term.Template:Sfn

He also was intolerant with his political opponents, forcing many to flee the country and building the infamous Guatemalan Central penitentiary where he had numerous people incarcerated and tortured.Template:Sfn

Guatemalan administrative structure during Barrios’ tenure

Appleton's guide for México and Guatemala from 1884,Template:Sfn shows the twenty departments in which Guatemala was divided during Barrios' time in office:Template:Sfn

Departament Area (square miles) Population Capital Capital population
Guatemala 700 100,000 Guatemala City 50,000
Sacatepéquez 250 48,000 Antigua Guatemala 15,000
Amatitlán 200 38,000 Amatitlán 14,000
Escuintla 1,950 30,000 Escuintla 10,000
Chimaltenango 800 60,000 Chimaltenango 6,300
Sololá 700 80,000 Sololá 15,000
Totonicapán 700 114,000 Totonicapan 25,000
Quiché 1,300 75,000 Santa Cruz del Quiché 6,300
Quezaltenango 450 94,000 Quezaltenango 22,000
Suchitepéquez 2,500 69,000 Mazatenango 11,500
Huehuetenango 4,550 90,000 Huehuetenango 16,000
San Márcos 750 100,000 San Márcos 12,600
Petén 13,200 14,000 Flores 2,200
Verapaz 11,200 100,000 Salamá 8,000
Izabal 1,500 3,400 Izabal 750
Chiquimula 2,200 70,000 Chiquimula 12,000
Zacapa 4,400 28,000 Zacapa 4,000
Jalapa 450 8,600 Jalapa 4,000
Jutiapa 1,700 38,000 Jutiapa 7,000
Santa Rosa 1,100 38,500 Cuajiniquilapa 5,000
Total 50,600 1,198,500

Barrios oversaw substantial cleaning and reconstruction of Guatemala City, and set up a new accountable police force. He brought the first telegraph lines and railroads to the republic. He established a system of public schools in the country.

Economy

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File:Pagojornaleros1890.jpg
Day laborers pay day in Santa Rosa ca. 1890 according to the Day Laborer Regulations established by Barrios.
File:Estadoguatemala1832 2014-06-22 10-02.jpg
Guatemala territory during Rafael Carrera and Vicente Cerna conservative regimes. Soconusco territories were given to México in exchange for their support for the Liberal revolution in 1871 by Herrera-Mariscal treaty of 1882.

During Barrios' tenure, the "Indian land" that the conservative regime of Rafael Carrera had so strongly defended was confiscated and distributed among those officers who had helped him during the Liberal Revolution in 1871.Template:Sfn Decree # 170 (a.k.a. Census redemption decree) made it easy to confiscate those lands in favor of the army officers and the German settlers in Verapaz, as it allowed to publicly sell those common Indian lots.Template:Sfn Therefore, the fundamental characteristic of the productive system during Barrios' regime was the accumulation of large swaths of land among few ownersTemplate:Sfn and a sort of "farmland servitude," based on the exploitation of the native day laborers.Template:Sfn

In order to ensure a steady supply of day laborers for the coffee plantations, which required many, Barrios' government decreed the Day Laborer regulations, labor legislation that placed the entire native population at the disposition of the new and traditional Guatemalan landlords, except the regular clergy, who were eventually expelled form the country and saw their properties confiscated.Template:Sfn This decree set the following for the native Guatemalans:

  1. forced by law to work on farms when the owners of the farms required them, without regard for where the native towns were located.
  2. under control of local authorities, who were charged with ensuring that day laborers were sent to all the farms that required them.
  3. subject to "habilitation:" a type of forced advanced pay, which buried the day laborer in debt and then made it legal for the landlords to keep them on their land for as long as they wanted.
  4. Created the day laborer booklet: a document that proved that a day laborer had no debts to his employer. Without this document, any day laborer was at the mercy of the local authorities and the landlords.Template:Sfn

Second term

In 1879, a constitution was ratified for Guatemala. This was the Republic's first as an independent nation, as the old Conservador regime had ruled by decree. In 1880, Barrios was reelected President for a six-year term. Barrios unsuccessfully attempted to get the United States of America to mediate the disputed boundary between Guatemala and Mexico.

Central American Union

Barrios was an advocate for unifying the territories of Central America into a single state.<ref name=":0" /> The legitimation and consolidation of Barrios as a charismatic military and political leader was such that on February 28, 1885, Barrios declared himself President of Central America <ref name="Schenoni2024">Template:Cite book</ref> and sought support for the plan by the United States.<ref name=":0" />

Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras agreed to re-form the Central American Union, but the then Salvadoran President Rafael Zaldivar decided to withdraw, and sent envoys to Mexico to join in an alliance to overthrow Barrios. Mexican President Porfirio Díaz feared Barrios' liberal reforms and the potential of a strong Central America as a neighbor if Barrios' plans bore fruit. Díaz sent Mexican troops to seize the disputed land of Soconusco.

Death

File:Muertebarrios.jpg
Painting of General Barrios' death in Chalchuapa on April 2, 1885.
File:LaTorreDelReformador2.jpg
Reformador Tower, inaugurated on July 19, 1935, by the liberal regime of general Jorge Ubico Castañeda in celebration of Barrios Centennial.

Justo Rufino Barrios died during the Battle of Chalchuapa in El Salvador, as did his son, General Venancio Barrios, on 2 April 1885. The official liberal version is that Barrios was killed in action, alongside officer Adolfo V. Hall. However, some versions insist that one of his soldiers shot and killed unintentionally from behindTemplate:Sfn <ref name="Schenoni2024"/> or that there might have been a murder plot.Template:Citation needed

Upon learning about his death, the Guatemalan Army panicked; officer José María Reyna Barrios, president Barrios' nephew, picked up the lifeless body of Venancio Barrios and organized the withdrawal of the Guatemalan battalions, while preparing the defense against a possible Salvadorian attack. Reyna Barrios, signing as Rosario Yerjabens,<ref group=lower-alpha>Rosario Yerjabens was an anagram of Reyna Barrios name.</ref> told the story of what he saw, which does not match the official account: "The general in Chief, Justo Rufino Barrios, decided, about 8 a.m., to personally command the attack on the northeast side of "Casa Blanca"; and in order to accomplish that, he sent the Jirón Brigade, whose soldiers were all Jalapas.<ref group=lower-alpha>Jalapas: soldiers from the Guatemalan city of Jalapa.</ref> These soldiers behaved in the most cowardly and disgraceful way. It is believed that they had been indoctrinated by some miserable traitor, one of those men without heart or conscience, one of those ungrateful people that was licking their benefactor's hand and abusing both his good heart and fortune. Unfortunately, a moment after the attack began, an enemy bullet wounded him mortally and he had to be taken off the battlefield. This sad occurrence was enough for some coward Jalapa soldiers who saw general Barrios dead, to leave their post and spread the sad news."Template:Sfn

On 4 April the defeated Guatemalan forces arrived in Guatemala City, where Reyna Barrios was promoted to general for his valiant battle services.

Template:Multiple image

Today, his portrait is on the five quetzal bill in Guatemala, and the city and port of Puerto Barrios, capital of Izabal, bears his name.

See also

Notes

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References

Citations

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Bibliography

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