Lingzhi (mushroom)

Template:Short description Template:Speciesbox Template:Mycomorphbox Template:Infobox Chinese Lingzhi (Ganoderma sichuanense), also known as reishi, is a polypore fungus ("bracket fungus") native to East Asia belonging to the genus Ganoderma.

Its reddish brown, varnished, kidney-shaped cap with bands and peripherally inserted stem give it a distinct fan-like appearance. When fresh, the lingzhi is soft, cork-like, and flat. It lacks gills on its underside, and instead releases its spores via fine pores (80–120 μm) in yellow colors.<ref name="Cao 2012"/>

In nature, it grows at the base and stumps of deciduous trees, especially maples. Only two or three out of 10,000 such trees will have lingzhi growth, and therefore its wild form is rare.Template:Citation needed Lingzhi may be cultivated on hardwood logs, sawdust, or woodchips.

The lingzhi mushroom is used in traditional Chinese medicine.<ref name="Cao 2012">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Taxonomy

Lingzhi, also known as reishi from its Japanese pronunciation, is the ancient "mushroom of immortality", revered for over 2,000 years (with some evidence suggesting use in Neolithic China 6,800 years ago).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, as of 2023 there is an ongoing debate on which one of the described Ganoderma species is the true lingzhi mushroom. It is also likely that a few similar Ganoderma species were considered interchangeable.

In the scientific literature, the lingzhi mushroom is ambiguously referred to as:

• Ganoderma sichuanense — the currently accepted name, described by Zhao and Zhang (1983).<ref name="Zhao 1983">Template:Cite book</ref>
• Ganoderma lingzhi — described by Cao et al. (2012)<ref name="Cao 2012" /> as a novel species that may be the best fit for traditional definitions of the lingzhi mushroom. However, Du et al. (2023)<ref name="Du 2023" /> found that it is the same species as G. sichuanense, so it is now treated as a later synonym.
• Ganoderma lucidum — the type species of Ganoderma was first described in 1781 by Curtis as Boletus lucidus based on European collections. In 1881 Karst designated it as the type species of his new genus Ganoderma, as Ganoderma lucidum. Early literature used G. lucidum for collections from China, but it was later established that Asian populations are distinct from European, both morphologically and phylogenetically.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Du 2023" /> As the lingzhi fungus is strongly rooted in culture, the old name persists, even though it is well established that G. sichuanense and G. lucidum are distinct species.

One source employed to solve the task of identifying the traditional lingzhi mushroom is the 16th century Chinese herbal compendium, the Template:Transliteration (1578). There, a number of different lingzhi-like mushrooms defined by color were used for different purposes. No exact current species can be attached to these ancient lingzhi for certain, but according to Dai et al. (2017),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> as well as other researchers, and based on molecular work, red lingzhi is most likely to be Ganoderma sichuanense.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Cao 2012" />

Ganoderma sichuanense is the most widely found species in Chinese herb shops today,Template:Citation needed and the fruiting bodies are widely cultivated in China and shipped to many other countries. About 7–10 other Ganoderma species are also sold in some shops, but have different Chinese and Latin names, and are considered different in their activity and functions. The differences are based on concentrations of triterpenes such as ganoderic acid and its derivatives, which vary widely among species. Research on the genus is ongoing, but a number of recent phylogenetic analyses have been published in recent years.<ref name="Zhou 2015">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Nomenclature

Petter Adolf Karsten first described the genus Ganoderma in 1881,.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> He designated as its type species a European fungus named Boletus lucidus by English botanist William Curtis in 1781. Since then, many other Ganoderma species have been described.

The lingzhi's botanical names have Greek and Latin roots. Ganoderma derives from the Greek Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss), and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss).<ref name="Liddell 1980">Template:Cite book</ref> The specific epithet, sichuanense, comes from the Sichuan Chinese province. The common name, lingzhi, comes from Chinese, meaning Template:Gloss.

Varieties

It was once thought that G. lingzhi generally occurred in two growth forms: a large, sessile, specimen with a small or nonexistent stalk, found in North America, and a smaller specimen with a long, narrow stalk, found mainly in the tropics. However, recent molecular evidence has identified the former, stalkless, form as a distinct species called G. sessile, a name given to North American specimens by William Alfonso Murrill in 1902.<ref name="Zhou 2015" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Environmental conditions play a substantial role in the lingzhi's manifest morphological characteristics. For example, elevated carbon dioxide levels result in stem elongation in lingzhi. Other formations include antlers without a cap, which may also be related to carbon dioxide levels. The three main factors that influence fruit body development morphology are light, temperature, and humidity. While water and air quality play a role in fruit body development morphology, they do so to a lesser degree.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Distribution and habitat

Ganoderma lingzhi is found in East Asia growing as a parasite or saprotroph on a variety of trees.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Ganoderma curtisii and Ganoderma ravenelii are the closest relatives of the lingzhi mushroom in North America.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In the wild, lingzhi grows at the base and stumps of deciduous trees, especially maples.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Only two or three out of 10,000 such aged trees will have lingzhi growth, and therefore it is extremely rare in its natural form.Template:Citation needed Today, lingzhi is effectively cultivated on hardwood logs or sawdust/woodchips.<ref name="Veena 2011">Template:Cite journal</ref>

• 
  Grown lingzhi mushroom
• 
  Depending on growing conditions, lingzhi may resemble antlers, with no umbrella cap.

Uses

Phytochemistry

Ganoderic acid A, a compound isolated from lingzhi

Ganoderma lucidum contains diverse phytochemicals, including triterpenes (ganoderic acids), which have a molecular structure similar to that of steroid hormones.<ref name="Paterson">Template:Cite journal</ref> It also contains phytochemicals found in fungal materials, including polysaccharides (such as beta-glucan), coumarin,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> mannitol, and alkaloids.<ref name="Paterson" /> Sterols isolated from the mushroom include ganoderol, ganoderenic acid, ganoderiol, ganodermanontriol, lucidadiol, and ganodermadiol.<ref name="Paterson" />

Folk medicine

Because of its bitter taste,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> lingzhi is traditionally prepared as a hot water extract product for use in folk medicine.<ref name="Smith 2001" /> Thinly sliced or pulverized lingzhi (either fresh or dried) is added to boiling water which is then reduced to a simmer, covered, and left for 2 hours.<ref name="Wachtel-Galor 2011">Template:Cite book</ref> The resulting liquid is dark and fairly bitter in taste. The red lingzhi is often more bitter than the black. The process is sometimes repeated to increase the concentration. Alternatively, it can be used as an ingredient in a formula decoction, or used to make an extract (in liquid, capsule, or powder form).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Other uses

Lingzhi is commercially manufactured and sold. Since the early 1970s, most lingzhi is cultivated. Lingzhi can grow on substrates such as sawdust, grain, and wood logs. After formation of the fruiting body, lingzhi is most commonly harvested, dried, ground, and processed into tablets or capsules to be directly ingested or made into tea or soup. Other lingzhi products include processed fungal mycelia or spores.<ref name="Wachtel-Galor 2011" /> Lingzhi is also used to create mycelium bricks.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Cultural significance

Tao Yuanming holding Lingzhi by Chen Hongshou<ref>Философско-эстетический смысл так называемого «божественного гриба» («линчжи») в искусстве Китая / Завадская Е. В. // Научные сообщения Государственного музея искусства народов Востока // М.: Наука, 1977. — Вып. 9. — (с. 40—46) — С. 44. (табл. III) С. 179.</ref>

In the chronicles of Template:Transliteration (1st century CE from Sima Qian), the initial use of nearby separately related words with Template:Lang-zh and Template:Lang-zh are attested to in the poems of Emperor Wu of Han. Later, in the 1st century CE through the poetry of Ban Gu, occurred the first combination of the characters {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} together into a single word, in an ode dedicated to Lingzhi.<ref name="Zavadskaya;1977">Философско-эстетический смысл так называемого «божественного гриба» («линчжи») в искусстве Китая Template:Webarchive // Научные сообщения Государственного музея искусства народов Востока // М.: Наука, 1977. — Вып. 9. — С. 40—46.</ref><ref>Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality / Wasson R. G. // New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. — P. 85. — P. 89.</ref>

Since ancient times, Taoist temples were called "the abode of mushrooms" and according to their mystical teachings, the use of woody mushrooms Template:Transliteration (Ganoderma) or Template:Transliteration "spirits mushroom", in particular making from it a concentrated decoction of hallucinogenic action,<ref name="Zavadskaya;1977" /> gave followers the opportunity to see spirits or become spirits themselves by receiving the magical energy of the immortals Template:Transliteration, located on the "fields of grace" in the heavenly "mushroom fields" (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Китай: колокольца в пыли. Странствия мага и интеллектуала// М.: Алетейа, 2005. — 376 с. — ISBN 5-98639-025-3 — С. 74, 356, 367.</ref>

In the philosophical work Template:Transliteration, it is said that the lingzhi mushroom is personification of nobility; from which shamans brewed a psychedelic drink.<ref>Философы из Хуайнани. Хуайнаньцзы / Пер. Л. Е. Померанцевой. Сост. И. В. Ушаков // М: Мысль, 2004. — 430 с. — Template:ISBN — С. 267. «Шаманок (Ушань) — гора в пров. Сычуань. Из гриба цзычжи (другое название — линчжи) мудрецы делали дурманящий напиток. О дереве гаося аналогичных сведений как будто нет. Комментарий говорит, что это высокое дерево с плотной шелковистой древесиной белого цвета и что гаося и цзычжи символы благородства, а чернобыльники и полынь — символы ничтожества.» — С. 50: «На горе Шаманок послушны ветру и покорны огню как дерево гаося и гриб цзычжи, так и чернобыльник и полынь все погибают вместе.»</ref><ref>Поздние даосы о природе, обществе и искусстве («Хуайнаньцзы» — II в. до н. э.) / Померанцева Л. Е. // М.: Издательство Московского университета, 1979. — 240 с. — С. 145, 220.</ref>

The Template:Transliteration (Divine Farmer's Classic of Pharmaceutics) of Template:C. classifies Template:Transliteration into six color categories, each of which is believed to benefit the Template:Transliteration, or "life force", in a different part of the body: Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the liver, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the heart, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the spleen, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the lungs, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the kidneys, and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss) for the Essence. Commentators identify the red Template:Transliteration, or Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; Template:Gloss), as the lingzhi.<ref name="EASTM 37 (2013)/2014: 36-68" /><ref name="DOI: 10.1039/d0ra07219b" />

Chi Zhi (Ganoderma rubra) is bitter and balanced. It mainly treats binding in the chest, boosts the heart qi, supplements the center, sharpens the wits, and [causes people] not to forget [i.e., improves the memory]. Protracted taking may make the body light, prevent senility, and prolong life so as to make one an immortal. Its other name is Dan Zhi (Cinnabar Ganoderma). It grows in mountains and valleys.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>{{#if:|

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In the Taoist treatise of Template:Transliteration from Ge Hong, the lingzhi is used for immortality.<ref>Li Bo Unkempt / Kidder Smith, Mike Zhai // Punctum Books, 2021. — Template:ISBN; {{#invoke:CS1 identifiers|main|_template=doi}}. — pp. 137, 405.</ref><ref name="EASTM 37 (2013)/2014: 36-68">Template:Usurped / Lu Di // «East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine», № 37 (2013)/2014: 36-68.</ref><ref name="DOI: 10.1039/d0ra07219b">Traditional uses, chemical components and pharmacological activities of the genus Ganoderma P. Karst.: a review / Li Wang, Jie-qing Li, Ji Zhang, Zhi-min Li,b Hong-gao Liu, Yuan-zhong Wang // RSC Advances: Issue 69, 2020.</ref>

The (1596) Template:Transliteration (Compendium of Materia Medica) has a Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) category that includes six types of Template:Transliteration (calling the green, red, yellow, white, black, and purple mushrooms of the Template:Transliteration the liuzhi (六芝; "six mushrooms") and sixteen other fungi, mushrooms, and lichens, including mu'er (木耳; "wood ear"; "cloud ear fungus", Auricularia auricula-judae). The author Li Shizhen classified these six differently colored zhi as xiancao (仙草; "immortality herbs"), and described the effects of chizhi ("red mushroom"):

It positively affects the life-energy, or Qi of the heart, repairing the chest area and benefiting those with a knotted and tight chest. Taken over a long period of time, the agility of the body will not cease, and the years are lengthened to those of the Immortal Fairies.<ref>Template:Cite wikisource</ref><ref name="Halpern 2007">Template:Cite book</ref>{{#if:|

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Chinese herbology describes the zhi.

芝 (Chih) is defined in the classics as the plant of immortality, and it is therefore always considered to be a felicitous one. It is said to absorb the earthy vapors and to leave a heavenly atmosphere. For this reason, it is called 靈芝 (Ling-chih.) It is large and of a branched form, and probably represents Clavaria or Sparassis. Its form is likened to that of coral.<ref name="Stuart 1911">Template:Cite book</ref>{{#if:|

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The Bencao Gangmu does not list lingzhi as a variety of zhi, but as an alternate name for the shi'er (石耳; "stone ear", Umbilicaria esculenta) lichen. According to Stuart and Smith,

[The 石耳 Shih-erh is] edible, and has all of the good qualities of the 芝 (Chih), it is also being used in the treatment of gravel, and said to benefit virility. It is specially used in hemorrhage from the bowels and prolapse of the rectum. While the name of this would indicate that it was one of the Auriculariales, the fact that the name 靈芝 (Ling-chih) is also given to it might place it among the Clavariaceae.<ref name="Stuart 1911" />{{#if:|

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In Chinese art, the lingzhi symbolizes great health and longevity, as depicted in the imperial Forbidden City and Summer Palace.<ref name="Smith 2001">Template:Cite journal</ref> It was a talisman for luck in the traditional culture of China, and the goddess of healing Guanyin is sometimes depicted holding a lingzhi mushroom.<ref name="Halpern 2007" />

Regional names

Chinese

The Old Chinese name for lingzhi {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was first recorded during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 9 AD). In the Chinese language, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is a compound. It comprises Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); "spirit, spiritual; soul; miraculous; sacred; divine; mysterious; efficacious; effective)" as, for example, in the name of the Lingyan Temple in Jinan, and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); "(traditional) plant of longevity; fungus; seed; branch; mushroom; excrescence"). Fabrizio Pregadio notes, "The term zhi, which has no equivalent in Western languages, refers to a variety of supermundane substances often described as plants, fungi, or 'excrescences'."<ref name="Pregadio 2008">Template:Cite book</ref> Zhi occurs in other Chinese plant names, such as Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "sesame" or "seed"), and was anciently used a phonetic loan character for Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "Angelica iris"). Chinese differentiates Ganoderma species into Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "red mushroom") G. lingzhi, and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "purple mushroom") Ganoderma sinense.

Lingzhi has several synonyms. Of these, Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "auspicious plant") (Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "auspicious; felicitous omen" with the suffix Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "plant; herb") is the oldest; the Erya dictionary (c. 3rd century BCE) defines Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, interpreted as a miscopy of Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "mushroom") as Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "mushroom"), and the commentary of Guo Pu (276–324) says, "The [zhi] flowers three times in one year. It is a [ruicao] felicitous plant."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other Chinese names for Ganoderma include Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "auspicious mushroom"), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "divine mushroom", with shen; "spirit; god' supernatural; divine"), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) (with "tree; wood"), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "immortality plant", with xian; "(Daoism) transcendent; immortal; wizard"), and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "mushroom plant").

Since both Chinese ling and zhi have multiple meanings, lingzhi has diverse English translations. Renditions include "[zhi] possessed of soul power",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "Herb of Spiritual Potency" or "Mushroom of Immortality",<ref name="Arora">Template:Cite book</ref> "Numinous Mushroom",<ref name="Pregadio 2008" /> "divine mushroom",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "divine fungus",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "Magic Fungus",<ref name="Knechtges 1996">Template:Cite book</ref> and "Marvelous Fungus".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

English

In English, lingzhi or ling chih (sometimes spelled "ling chi", using the French EFEO Chinese transcription) is a Chinese loanword. It is also commonly referred to as "reishi", which is loaned from Japanese.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) gives the definition, "The fungus Ganoderma lucidum (actually Ganoderma lingzhi (see Ganoderma lucidum for details), believed in China to confer longevity and used as a symbol of this on Chinese ceramic ware.",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and identifies the etymology of the word as Chinese: líng, "divine" + zhī, "fungus". According to the OED, the earliest recorded usage of the Wade–Giles romanization ling chih is 1904,<ref>Template:Cite book (Victoria and Albert Museum); This context describes the lingzhi fungus and ruyi scepter as Daoist symbols of longevity on a jade vase.</ref> and of the Pinyin lingzhi is 1980.

In addition to the transliterated loanwords, English names include "glossy ganoderma" and "shiny polyporus".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japanese

The Japanese word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is a Sino-Japanese loanword deriving from the Chinese Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). Its modern Japanese kanji, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, is the shinjitai ("new character form") of the kyūjitai ("old character form"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Synonyms for reishi are divided between Sino-Japanese borrowings and native Japanese coinages. Sinitic loanwords include literary terms such as Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, from Template:Transliteration; "auspicious plant") and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, from Template:Transliteration; "immortality plant"). The Japanese writing system uses Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) for "grass; lawn; turf", and take or Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) for "mushroom" (e.g., shiitake). A common native Japanese name is Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "10,000-year mushroom"). Other Japanese terms for reishi include Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "departure mushroom"), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "sage mushroom"), and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "grandchild ladle").

Korean

The Korean name, Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) is also borrowed from, so a cognate with, the Chinese word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). It is often called yeongjibeoseot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "yeongji mushroom") in Korean, with the addition of the native word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) meaning "mushroom". Other common names include Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean; "elixir grass") and Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean). According to color, yeongji mushrooms can be classified as Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "red", Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "purple", Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "black", Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "blue" or "green", Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "white", and Template:Transliteration (Template:Korean) for "yellow". South Korea produces over 25,000 tons of mushrooms every year.

Thai

The Thai word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is a compound of the native word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) meaning "mushroom" and the loanword Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) from the Chinese Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).

Vietnamese

The Vietnamese language word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is a loanword from Chinese. It is often used with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, the Vietnamese word for "mushroom", thus {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the equivalent of "lingzhi mushroom".