Manchu people

The Manchus (Template:Manchu; Template:Lang-zh)Template:Efn are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Later Jin (1616–1636) and Qing (1636–1912) dynasties of China were established and ruled by the Manchus, who are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China.

Manchus form the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are distributed throughout China, forming the country's fourth largest ethnic group.<ref name="2010data">Template:Cite book</ref> They inhabit 31 Chinese provincial regions. Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing each have over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning and one-fifth in Hebei. Manchu autonomous counties in China include Xinbin, Xiuyan, Qinglong, Fengning, Yitong, Qingyuan, Weichang, Kuancheng, Benxi, Kuandian, Huanren, Fengcheng, Beizhen,Template:Efn including over 300 Manchu towns and townships.<ref name="manchus2009" />

Etymology

"Manchu" (Template:Manchu, Template:Lang-zh) was adopted as the official name of the people by Emperor Hong Taiji in 1635, replacing the earlier name "Jurchen". Allegedly, manju was an old term for the Jianzhou Jurchens, although the etymology is not well understood.<ref name=peterson2002/>Template:Rp<ref name="yan2008">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Chinese characters chosen to translate the Manchu name are 滿洲 which, like the character for "Qing" (清), include the water component. Possibly this was done because the Ming dynasty's name (明), which means "bright", represents fire, and water extinguishes fire.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The Jiu Manzhou Dang, archives of early 17th century documents, contains the earliest use of Manchu.<ref name="Wilkinson2000">Template:Cite book</ref> According to the Qing dynasty's official historical record, the Researches on Manchu Origins, the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Qianlong Emperor supported that point of view and wrote poems on the subject.<ref name=meng2006>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Qing dynasty scholar Meng Sen agreed. He also thought the name might stem from Li Manzhu (Template:Lang), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens.<ref name=meng2006/>Template:Rp

Scholar Chang Shan held that Manju is a compound word. Man was from the word mangga (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode) which means "strong", and ju (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode) means "arrow". In this interpretation, Manju means "intrepid arrow".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other hypotheses include Fu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Manshi"; Template:Ill "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

An extensive etymological study from 2022 lends additional support to the view that manju is cognate with words referring to the lower Amur river in other Tungusic languages and can be reconstructed to Proto-Tungusic *mamgo 'lower Amur, large river'.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

History

Early history

Origin

File:Wanggiyan Aguda.jpg

Aguda, Emperor Taizu of Jurchen Jin

The Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in China.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=tong2009>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=huang1990>Template:Cite journal</ref> The name Mohe might refer to an ancestral Manchu population. The Mohe practiced pig husbandry and were mainly sedentary.<ref name=Gorelova>Template:Cite book</ref> They used pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybeans, wheat, millet and rice, in addition to hunting.<ref name=Gorelova/>

In the 10th century AD, the term Jurchen first appeared in documents of the late Tang dynasty in reference to the state of Balhae in present-day northeastern China. The Jurchens were sedentary,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep and horses.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These farmers lived differently from the pastoral nomadism of the Mongols and the Khitans on the steppes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. Japanese governor Fujiwara Notada was killed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed, and 380 Japanese-owned livestock were killed for food.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships.<ref>Template:Cite book Alt URL</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copiedTemplate:Clarify.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion, the Mongol invasions of Japan, and Japanese views of the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" (adopting China's barbarian-civilized binary), may have played a role in Japan's hostility to Manchus in later centuries. For example, Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed the unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate Bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering to help Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion, which was declined.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>

Liao dynasty

Following the fall of Balhae, the Jurchens became vassals of the Liao dynasty. The Yalu River Jurchens became tributaries of Goryeo during the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. The Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. Posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security, the Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting gifts in return.<ref name="Breuker 2010">Template:Cite book</ref> Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names, such as suffixes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the year 1114, Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234).<ref name="toqto'a">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai defeated the Liao. After the fall of the Liao, the Jurchens went to war with the Northern Song dynasty, and captured most of northern China in the Jin–Song wars.<ref name="toqto'a"/>Template:Rp During the Jin dynasty in the 1120s, the first Jurchen script came into use. It was mainly derived from Khitan script.<ref name="toqto'a"/>Template:Rp

Yuan dynasty

In 1206, the Mongols, then vassals to the Jurchens, rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led Mongol troops against the Jurchens, who were ultimately defeated by Ögedei Khan in 1234.<ref name=zheng2009/>Template:Rp Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter Jurchen Princess Qiguo married Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Yuan grouped people into different categories based on how recently their state surrendered to the Yuan. Subjects of the southern Song were classified as southerners (nan ren) and also referred to as manzi. Subjects of the Jin dynasty, Western Xia, and the kingdom of Dali in Yunnan in southern China were categorized as northerners, using the term Han. However, the use of the Han as the name of a class category by the Yuan dynasty was a different concept from Han ethnicity.

Ethnic Han people were divided into two classes in the Yuan, Han Ren and Nan Ren. Additionally, the Yuan directive to treat Jurchens the same as Mongols referred to Jurchens and Khitans in the northwest (not the Jurchen homeland in the northeast), presumably in the lands of Qara Khitai, where many Khitans lived. However, it remains a mystery as to how Jurchens were living there.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> Many Jurchens adopted Mongolian customs, names, and the Mongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script. The Jurchen Yehe Nara clan is of paternal Mongol origin.

Many Jurchen families descended from the original Jin Jurchen migrants in Han areas such as those using the surnames Wang and Nian 粘 reclaimed their ethnicity and registered as Manchus. Wanyan (完顏) clan members who changed their surnames to Wang (王) after the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty applied successfully to the national government for their ethnic group to be marked as Manchu despite never having been part of the Eight Banner system during the Qing dynasty. The surname Nianhan (粘罕), shortened to Nian (粘) is a surname of Jurchen origin, also originating from one of the members of the royal Wanyan clan. It is an extremely rare surname in China, and members of the Nian clan live in Nan'an, Quanzhou, Jinjiang, Shishi, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Zhangpu and Sanming, Fujian, as well as in Laiyang, Shandong and in Xingtai, Hebei. Some of the Nian from Quanzhou immigrated to Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. In Taiwan they are concentrated in Changhua county. There are less than 30,000 members of the Nian clan worldwide, with 9,916 of them in Taiwan, and 3,040 of those in Fuxing township of Changhua county.

Ming dynasty

The Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming forces defeated the Mongol commander Naghachu's resisting forces who settled in the Haixi area<ref name="peterson2002">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp and summoned the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp At the time, Jurchen clans such as Odoli and Huligai were vassals to the Joseon dynasty of Korea.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp Their elites served in the Korean royal bodyguard.<ref name="peterson2002" />Template:Rp

The Joseon Koreans approached the military threat posed by the Jurchen by forceful means, incentives, and by launching military attacks. At the same time they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Jurchens integrate into Korean culture.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Their relationship was eventually stopped by the Ming government, who wanted the Jurchens to protect the border. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor. Soon after, Möngke Temür,Template:Efn chieftain of the Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens, stopped paying tribute to Korea, instead becoming a tributary to China.

Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon, asked the Ming Empire to send Möngke Temür back, but was refused.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp The Yongle Emperor was determined to move the Jurchens from Korean to Chinese influence.<ref name="zhang2008b">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="Dardess2012">Template:Cite book</ref> Korea unsuccessfully tried to persuade Möngke Temür to reject the Ming overtures, and he submitted to the Ming Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="zhang2008b" />Template:Rp More and more Jurchen tribes began to offer tribute to the Ming Empire.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp The Ming divided them into 384 guards,<ref name="peterson2002" />Template:Rp and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During the Ming dynasty, the name for the Jurchen land was Nurgan. The Jurchens became part of the Ming dynasty's Nurgan Regional Military Commission under the Yongle Emperor, with Ming forces erecting the Yongning Temple Stele in 1413, at the headquarters of Nurgan. The stele was inscribed in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan.

In 1449, Mongol Taishi Esen attacked the Ming Empire and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu. Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou and Haixi cooperated with Esen,<ref name="manchus2009" />Template:Rp but more were attacked in the Mongol invasion. Many Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates granted by the Ming government.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp They had to present tribute as secretariats (Template:Lang) with less reward from the Ming court than in the time when they were heads of guards–an unpopular development.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp Subsequently, more and more Jurchens recognised the Ming Empire's declining power due to Esen's invasion. The Zhengtong Emperor's capture directly caused Jurchen guards to go out of control.<ref name="meng2006" />Template:Rp Tribal leaders, such as CungšanTemplate:Efn and Template:Ill, plundered Ming territory. At about this time, the Jurchen script was officially abandoned.<ref name="jinkaihe">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese.<ref name="fuge">Template:Cite book</ref> The final recorded Jurchen writing dates to 1526.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Manchus are sometimes mistakenly classified as nomadic people.<ref name="crossley2002">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Wakeman1986">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Manchu society was agricultural, farming crops and tending animals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Haixi Jurchens were semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (Template:Lang) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary farmers Jianzhou and Maolian.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and agriculture were all part of Jianzhou Jurchens culture.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although Manchus practiced equestrianism and archery on horseback, their immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture.<ref name="rawski1998">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Manchus also partook in hunting.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> They lived in villages, forts, and walled towns.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Only the Mongols and the northern Wild Jurchen were semi-nomadic. The rest gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for game pelts in the uplands and forests, raised horses in stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling, and drinking strong liquor.

These Jurchens, who lived in the northeast's harsh cold climate, sometimes half-sunk their houses in the ground, which they constructed of brick or timber. They surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud wall fortifications. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves, and lands to their followers.Template:Citation needed

Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongol script for their own language, unlike the Jin Jurchens' Khitan-derived script. They adopted Confucian values and shamanic traditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Unlike their Mohe ancestors, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty, and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs.

For political reasons, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols.<ref name="perdue2009">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism," since Nurhaci said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat, and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages."<ref name="peterson2002" />Template:Rp Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Left Guard who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial power of the Ming dynasty,<ref>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29</ref> made efforts to unify the Jurchen tribes and established a military system called the "Eight Banners", which organized Jurchen soldiers into groups of "Bannermen", and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create a new Jurchen script (later known as Manchu script) using the traditional Mongolian alphabet as a reference.<ref name="yan2006">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Qing dynasty

During the transition from Ming to Qing, Nanjing civilian official Zhang Sunzhen remarked that he had a portrait of his ancestors wearing Manchu clothes because his family were Tartars. Therefore, he considered it appropriate to shave his head into the Manchu hairstyle when the queue order was given.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into farmers, but the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing forced the Warka to become soldier-farmers, but the Warka left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari river to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.<ref name="norman">Template:Cite book</ref>

Manchu rule over China

File:清 佚名 《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg

An imperial portrait of Nurhaci

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created from unrelated people founding a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led the Qing to try to systematize the creation of historical documents for Manchu clans, including manufacturing a legend around the origin of the Aisin-Gioro clan using mythology from the northeast.<ref name=orphanwarriors>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1603, Nurhaci gained recognition as the Sure Kundulen Khan (Template:Manchu, "wise and respected khan") from his Khalkha Mongol allies;<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp then, in 1616, he enthroned himself and issued a proclamation naming himself Genggiyen Khan (Template:Manchu, "bright khan") of the Later Jin dynasty (Template:Manchu, 後金).Template:Efn Nurhaci then renounced the Ming overlordship with the Seven Grievances and launched his attack on the Ming dynasty<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp and moved the capital to Mukden after his conquest of Liaodong.<ref name=yan2006/>Template:Rp In 1635, his son and successor Hong Taiji changed the name of the Jurchen ethnic group (Template:Manchu) to the Manchu.<ref name=various/>Template:Rp A year later, Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the emperor of the Qing dynasty (Template:Manchu).<ref name=du1997>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Factors for the name change from Jurchen to Manchu include the fact that the term "Jurchen" had negative connotations since the Jurchens had been in a servile position vis a vis the Ming dynasty for hundreds of years, and it also referred to people of the "dependent class".<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The change was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, had been ruled by the Chinese.<ref>Template:Cite ECCP</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=huang1990/>Template:Rp The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of "Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu" and the "Manzhou Shilu Tu" (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin-Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.<ref>Template:Cite ECCP</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) that they called Ming China.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Ming Veritable Records were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1644, the Ming capital, Beijing, was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the establishment of the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, died by suicide by hanging himself when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchu army. After the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng, they established their capital in Beijing (Template:ManchuTemplate:Sfn) in the same year.<ref name=du1997/>Template:Rp

The Qing government distinguished between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were Han Chinese who defected to the Qing Empire up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to acculturating to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing Empire and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was this multi-ethnic, majority Han force in which Manchus were a minority that conquered China for the Qing Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women was organized to balance the massive number of Han women who entered the Manchu court as courtesans, concubines, and wives. These couples were arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two groups.<ref name=wang2008>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp To further promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue (if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners) or the permission of their banner company captain (if they were unregistered commoners). Later in the dynasty these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=wang2008/>Template:Rp

File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg

The Qing Empire ca. 1820

As a result of their conquest of Ming China, almost all the Manchus followed the prince regent Dorgon and the Shunzhi Emperor to Beijing and settled there.<ref name=zhangzhang2005>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=liuzhaozhao>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp A few were sent to other places such as Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet to serve as garrison troops.<ref name=liuzhaozhao/>Template:Rp 1524 Bannermen were in Manchuria at the time of the initial Manchu conquest.<ref name=zhangzhang2005/>Template:Rp After a series of border conflicts with the Russians, the Qing emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back where they came from.<ref name=zhangzhang2005/>Template:Rp Throughout the Qing dynasty, Beijing was the center of the political, economic and cultural spheres. The Yongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are the places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland."<ref name=ortai1985>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

While the Manchu ruling elite in Beijing and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adopted Han culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a vital reservoir of military power dedicated to the regime.<ref name=lee1970>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Qing emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as other tribal peoples) in central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means. In particular, they restricted the migration of Han settlers to the region. This had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense of northern China against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with a skilled work force, and conducting trade, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Han convicts, workers, and merchants to the northeast.<ref name=lee1970/>Template:Rp

Han Chinese transfrontiersmen and other non-Jurchen origin people who joined the Later Jin early were put into the Manchu Banners and were known as baisin in Manchu, and not put into the Han Banners.<ref name="Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=crossley2000>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp An example was the Tokoro Manchu clan in the Manchu banners, which claimed to be descended from a Han Chinese with the surname of Tao who had moved north from Zhejiang to Liaodong and joined the Jurchens before the Qing in the Ming Wanli emperor's era.<ref name="Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi"/><ref name=crossley2000/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="TuanFang">Template:Cite ECCP</ref> The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, attempting to get transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their recorded ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan (台尼堪, watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan (撫順尼堪, Fushun Chinese)<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp backgrounds transferred into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qianlong emperor.<ref name=crossley2000/>Template:Rp Between 1618 and 1629 the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Manchus.<ref name=crossley2000/>Template:Rp These clans continued to use their Han surnames and were marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Better source needed</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Better source needed</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Fushun Nikan became Manjurified and the originally Han banner families of Wang Shixuan, Cai Yurong, Zu Dashou, Li Yongfang, Shi Tingzhu and Shang Kexi intermarried extensively with Manchu families.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

A Manchu Bannerman in Guangzhou called Hequan illegally adopted a Han Chinese named Zhao Tinglu, the son of former Han bannerman Zhao Quan, and named him Quanheng so that he could benefit from his adopted son receiving a salary as a Banner soldier.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Better source needed</ref>

Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility of the Eight Great Houses who held noble titles.<ref name=orphanwarriors/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Manchu bannermen of the capital garrison in Beijing were said to be the worst militarily, unable to draw bows, unable to ride horses and fight properly and abandoning their Manchu culture.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp

Manchu bannermen from the Xi'an banner garrison were praised for maintaining Manchu culture by Kangxi in 1703.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp Xi'an garrison Manchus were said to retain Manchu culture far better than other Manchus at martial skills in the provincial garrisons and they were able to draw their bows properly and perform cavalry archery, unlike Beijing Manchus. The Qianlong emperor received a memorial saying Xi'an Manchu bannermen still had martial skills although not up to those in the past in a 1737 memorial from Cimbu.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp By the 1780s, the military skills of Xi'an Manchu bannermen had dropped although they were regarded as the most militarily skilled provincial Manchu banner garrison.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp Manchu women from the Xi'an garrison often left the walled Manchu garrison and went to hot springs outside the city and gained bad reputations for their sexual behavior. A Manchu from Beijing, Sumurji, was shocked and disgusted by this after he was appointed Lieutenant general of the Manchu garrison of Xi'an and informed the Yongzheng emperor.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp<ref>YZMaZPZZ (Yongzheng chao Manwen zhupi zouzhe) 1 22 1, Sumurji, YZ7.R7.24.</ref> Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an had bad relations, with the bannermen trying to steal at the markets. Manchu Lieutenant general Cimbru reported this to Yongzheng emperor in 1729. Governor Yue Rui of Shandong was then ordered by the Yongzheng to report any bannerman misbehavior and warned him not to cover it up in 1730 after Manchu bannermen were put in a quarter in Qingzhou.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp Manchu bannermen from the garrisons in Xi'an and Jingzhou fought in Xinjiang in the 1770s and Manchus from Xi'an garrison fought in other campaigns against the Dzungars and Uyghurs throughout the 1690s and 18th century. In the 1720s Jingzhou, Hangzhou and Nanjing Manchu banner garrisons fought in Tibet.<ref name=Elliott2001/>Template:Rp

For the over 200 years Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an lived next to each other, but did not intermarry.<ref>Demographic Research Vol. 38, Article 34, pp. 929–966. 9 March 2018 http://www.demographic-research.org/Volumes/Vol38/34/ Template:Doi Research Article Interethnic marriage in Northeast China, 1866–1913 Bijia Chen Cameron Campbell Hao Dong p. 937</ref> Sociologist Edward Alsworth Ross wrote of his visit to Xi'an just before the Xinhai revolution:

Ross spoke highly of the Han and Hui population of Xi'an, Shaanxi and Gansu, saying: "After a fortnight of mule litter we sight ancient yellow Sianfu, "the Western capital," with its third of a million souls. Within the fortified triple gate the facial mold abruptly changes and the refined intellectual type appears. Here and there faces of a Hellenic purity of feature are seen and beautiful children are not uncommon. These Chinese cities make one realize how the cream of the population gathers in the urban centers. Everywhere town opportunities have been a magnet for the élite of the open country."<ref name=":3" />Template:Reference page

The Qing dynasty altered its law on intermarriage between Han civilians and Manchu bannermen several times. Initially, the Qing allowed Han civilians to marry Manchu women. Then the Qing banned civilians from marrying women from the Eight banners. In 1865, the Qing allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu bannerwomen in all garrisons except the capital garrison of Beijing. No formal law limited marriage between people in the different banners, but it was informally regulated by social status and custom. In northeastern China such as Heilongjiang and Liaoning it was more common for Manchu women to marry Han men since they were not subject to the same laws and institutional oversight as Manchus and Han in Beijing and elsewhere.<ref>Demographic Research Vol. 38, Article 34, pp. 929–966, 9 Mar 2018 http://www.demographic-research.org/Volumes/Vol38/34/ Template:Doi Research Article Interethnic marriage in Northeast China, 1866–1913 Bijia Chen Cameron Campbell Hao Dong pp. 936–937, 939</ref>

In the 1850s, large numbers of Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province – which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang – contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of whom only 10–20% survived).<ref name="lee1970" />Template:Rp Those few who returned were demoralized and often ended up in opium addiction.<ref name="lee1970" />Template:Rp In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of Outer Manchuria, and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement;<ref name="lee1970" />Template:Rp within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most Manchuria districts.

Modern times

File:载涛.jpg

Prince Zaitao dresses in modern reformed uniform of late Qing dynasty

The majority of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from the Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, since Han Chinese were expelled and not allowed to re-enter the inner part of the city.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Only after the "Hundred Days Reform", during the reign of emperor Guangxu, were Han allowed to enter inner Beijing.<ref name=":0" />

Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers in the Boxer Rebellion and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.<ref name=orphanwarriors/> The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by the fighting during the First Sino-Japanese War. They conducted much of the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion, sustaining massive casualties followed by hardship.<ref name=rhoads2011>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp German Minister Clemens von Ketteler was assassinated by a Manchu.<ref name=rhoads2000>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Thousands of Manchus fled south from Aigun during the Boxer Rebellion, their cattle and horses stolen by Russian Cossacks who razed their villages and homes.<ref name=shirokogorov>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Manchu clan system in Aigun was obliterated by the invaders.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

By the 19th century, most Manchus in the city garrison spoke only Mandarin, and not Manchu, which distinguished them from their Han neighbors in southern China, who spoke other dialects. The Manchus' use of Beijing dialects made recognizing them relatively easy.<ref name=rhoads2011/>Template:Rp<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp The Manchu Bannermen spoke northern Standard Chinese, instead of the local dialect. Manchus in the garrisons at Jingzhou and Guangzhou spoke Beijing Mandarin even though Cantonese was Guangzhou's common language. Their Beijing dialect distinguished bannermen at the Xi'an garrison from locals who spoke the Xi'an dialect.<ref name=rhoads2011/>Template:Rp<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp Bannermen took jobs as teachers, writing textbooks for learning Mandarin and instructing people in Mandarin.<ref name=kaske2008>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp In Guangdong, Manchu Mandarin teacher Sun Yizun advised that the Yinyun Chanwei and Kangxi Zidian, dictionaries issued by the Qing government, were the correct guides to Mandarin pronunciation, rather than the pronunciation of the Beijing and Nanjing dialects.<ref name=kaske2008/>Template:Rp

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for financial status.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Most intermarriage consisted of Han Bannermen marrying Manchus in areas like Aihun.<ref name=rhoads2011/>Template:Rp<ref name="Lattimore1932">Template:Cite book</ref>

As the end of the Qing dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp However, the revolution still saw many massacres committed by revolutionaries against the Manchus, most notably in Jiading, Xi'an, and Yangzhou, resulting in at least 12,000 known deaths in these three cities alone. The revolution drastically sped up the political/economic decline of the Manchu population. In order to blend in, some Manchus switched to speaking the local dialect instead of Standard Chinese.<ref name=rhoads2011/>Template:Rp<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp

File:Flag of China (1912–1928).svg

First flag used by Republican China

By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions hosting such relatively traditional communities, and where the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun (Template:Manchu) District and the Qiqihar (Template:Manchu) District of Heilongjiang Province.<ref name=shirokogorov/>Template:Rp

File:Fengtian clique's soliders with ushanka.jpg

Fengtian Clique soldiers in the 1920s

Until 1924, the Chinese government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen, but many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names to avoid persecution.<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp The official total of Manchus fell by more than half during this period, as they obscured their ethnicity when asked.<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp Exceptionally, in warlord Zhang Zuolin's reign in Manchuria, much better treatment was reported,<ref name=jin2009>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=manchus2009/>Template:Rp with no particular persecution of Manchus.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Qing emperor mausoleums were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen, as in the past.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Many Manchus joined the Fengtian clique, such as Xi Qia, a member of the Qing dynasty's imperial clan.

File:Flag of Manchukuo Imperial Navy - July 1939.jpg

Manchukuo Naval flag

Manchukuo

As a follow-up to the Mukden Incident, Manchukuo, a puppet state in Manchuria, was created by the Empire of Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Last Emperor, Puyi, in 1932. Although the nation's name implied a Manchu affiliation, it was actually a new country incorporating all the ethnicities in Manchuria.<ref>*Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="jin2009" />Template:Rp It had a majority Han population and was opposed by many Manchus as well as people of other ethnicities who fought against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War.<ref name="manchus2009" />Template:Rp

Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million residents in Manchuria "Manchus", including Han Chinese. The Japanese-authored "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China.<ref name="tamanoi2000">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp In 1942, the Japanese-authored Ten Year History of the Construction of Manchukuo emphasized the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchus' claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing dynasty and returned only later.<ref name="tamanoi2000" />Template:Rp

People's Republic of China

In 1952, after the failure of both Manchukuo and the Nationalist Government (KMT), the newborn People's Republic of China officially recognized the Manchu as one of the ethnic minorities as Mao Zedong had criticized the Han chauvinism that dominated the KMT.<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule became willing to reveal it, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s.<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority,<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp but this growth was due to people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp Since the 1980s, thirteen Manchu autonomous counties have been created in Liaoning, Jilin, Hebei, and Heilongjiang.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Eight Banners system is one of the most important ethnic identity of today's Manchu people.<ref name="Elliott2001" />Template:Rp Manchus became more like an ethnic coalition which contains the descendants of Manchu bannermen and a large number of Manchu-assimilated Chinese and Mongol bannermen.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="jin2009" />Template:Rp However, Solon and Sibe Bannermen, who were considered as part of Eight Banner system under the Qing dynasty, were registered as independent ethnic groups by the PRC government as Daur, Evenk, Nanai, Oroqen, and Sibe.<ref name="rhoads2000" />Template:Rp

Since the 1980s, after the Cultural Revolution, Manchu culture and language experienced a renaissance,<ref name="manchus2009" />Template:Rp including among Han Chinese.<ref name="resurgence">Template:Cite web</ref> Manchu culture and language preservation is promoted by the Chinese Communist Party, and Manchus again became one of China's most socioeconomically advanced minorities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Manchus generally face little to no discrimination in their daily lives, except among Han nationalist conspiracy theorists, whom claim that the CCP is occupied by Manchu elites and therefore Manchus receive better treatment under the People's Republic of China.<ref name="carrico">Template:Cite web</ref>

Manchus were subjected to the same one child policy and rules as Han people. Manchus, Koreans, Russians, Hui and Mongols in Inner Mongolia were subjected to restrictions of two children.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Population

Mainland China

Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,423,303, which is 8.19% of ethnic minorities and 0.74% of China's total population.<ref name=2010data/> However, the modern population of Manchus has been artificially inflated very much, because Han Chinese of the Eight Banner System, including booi bondservants, are allowed to register as Manchu in modern China.<ref name=rhoads2000/>Template:Rp Among the provincial regions, there are two provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.<ref name=2010data/> Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorities.<ref name=2010data/> Manchus are the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui.<ref name=2010data/>

Distribution

Rank	Region	Total Population	Manchu	Percentage in Manchu Population	Percentage in the Population of Ethnic Minorities (%)	Regional Percentage of Population	Regional Rank of Ethnic Population
	Total	1,335,110,869	Template:Color	100	9.28	0.77
	Total (in all 31 provincial regions)	1,332,810,869	Template:Color	99.83	9.28	0.78
G1	Northeast	109,513,129	Template:Color	66.77	68.13	6.35
G2	North	164,823,663	Template:Color	28.84	32.38	1.82
G3	East	392,862,229	Template:Color	1.18	3.11	0.03
G4	South Central	375,984,133	Template:Color	1.16	0.39	0.03
G5	Northwest	96,646,530	Template:Color	0.79	0.40	0.08
G6	Southwest	192,981,185	Template:Color	0.56	0.15	0.03
1	Liaoning	43,746,323	Template:Color	51.26	80.34	12.20	Template:Background color
2	Hebei	71,854,210	Template:Color	20.35	70.80	2.95	Template:Background color
3	Jilin	27,452,815	Template:Color	8.32	39.64	3.16	Template:Background color
4	Heilongjiang	38,313,991	Template:Color	7.19	54.41	1.95	Template:Background color
5	Inner Mongolia	24,706,291	Template:Color	4.35	8.96	2.14	Template:Background color
6	Beijing	19,612,368	Template:Color	3.23	41.94	1.71	Template:Background color
7	Tianjin	12,938,693	Template:Color	0.80	25.23	0.65	Template:Background color
8	Henan	94,029,939	Template:Color	0.53	4.95	0.06	Template:Background color
9	Shandong	95,792,719	Template:Color	0.45	6.41	0.05	Template:Background color
10	Guangdong	104,320,459	Template:Color	0.28	1.43	0.03	9th
11	Shanghai	23,019,196	Template:Color	0.24	9.11	0.11	5th
12	Ningxia	6,301,350	Template:Color	0.24	1.12	0.40	Template:Background color
13	Guizhou	34,748,556	Template:Color	0.22	0.19	0.07	18th
14	Xinjiang	21,815,815	Template:Color	0.18	0.14	0.09	10th
15	Jiangsu	78,660,941	Template:Color	0.17	4.70	0.02	7th
16	Shaanxi	37,327,379	Template:Color	0.16	8.59	0.04	Template:Background color
17	Sichuan	80,417,528	Template:Color	0.15	0.32	0.02	10th
18	Gansu	25,575,263	Template:Color	0.14	0.59	0.06	7th
19	Yunnan	45,966,766	Template:Color	0.13	0.09	0.03	24th
20	Hubei	57,237,727	Template:Color	0.12	0.52	0.02	6th
21	Shanxi	25,712,101	Template:Color	0.11	12.54	0.05	Template:Background color
22	Zhejiang	54,426,891	Template:Color	0.11	0.93	0.02	13th
23	Guangxi	46,023,761	Template:Color	0.11	0.07	0.02	12th
24	Anhui	59,500,468	Template:Color	0.08	2.15	0.01	Template:Background color
25	Fujian	36,894,217	Template:Color	0.08	1.05	0.02	10th
26	Qinghai	5,626,723	Template:Color	0.08	0.30	0.14	7th
27	Hunan	65,700,762	Template:Color	0.07	0.12	0.01	9th
28	Jiangxi	44,567,797	Template:Color	0.05	2.95	0.01	6th
29	Chongqing	28,846,170	Template:Color	0.04	0.24	0.02	7th
30	Hainan	8,671,485	Template:Color	0.04	0.26	0.04	8th
31	Tibet	3,002,165	Template:Color	<0.01	0.03	0.02	11th
	Active Servicemen	2,300,000	Template:Color	0.24	23.46	1.05	Template:Background color

Manchu autonomous regions

Manchu Autonomous County	Province	City
Qinglong Manchu Autonomous County	Hebei	Qinhuangdao
Fengning Manchu Autonomous County	Hebei	Chengde
Weichang Manchu and Mongol Autonomous County	Hebei	Chengde
Kuancheng Manchu Autonomous County	Hebei	Chengde
Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Anshan
Qingyuan Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Fushun
Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Fushun
Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Dandong
Benxi Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Benxi
Huanren Manchu Autonomous County	Liaoning	Benxi
Yitong Manchu Autonomous County	Jilin	Siping

Manchu Ethnic Town/Township	Province Autonomous area Municipality	City Prefecture	County
Paifang Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township	Anhui	Hefei	Feidong
Labagoumen Manchu Ethnic Township	Beijing	N/A	Huairou
Changshaoying Manchu Ethnic Township	Beijing	N/A	Huairou
Huangni Yi, Miao and Manchu Ethnic Township	Guizhou	Bijie	Dafang
Jinpo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township	Guizhou	Bijie	Qianxi
Anluo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township	Guizhou	Bijie	Jinsha
Xinhua Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township	Guizhou	Bijie	Jinsha
Tangquan Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Tangshan	Zunhua
Xixiaying Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Tangshan	Zunhua
Dongling Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Tangshan	Zunhua
Lingyunce Manchu and Hui Ethnic Township	Hebei	Baoding	Yi
Loucun Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Baoding	Laishui
Daweihe Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Langfang	Wen'an
Pingfang Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Anchungou Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Wudaoyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Zhengchang Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Mayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Fujiadianzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Xidi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Xiaoying Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Datun Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Xigou Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Luanping
Gangzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Chengde
Liangjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Chengde
Bagualing Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Xinglong
Nantianmen Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Xinglong
Yinjiaying Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Miaozigou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Badaying Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Taipingzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Jiutun Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Xi'achao Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Baihugou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Longhua
Liuxi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Qijiadai Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Pingfang Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Maolangou Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Xuzhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Nanwushijia Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Guozhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Hebei	Chengde	Pingquan
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Nangang
Xingfu Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Lequn Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Tongxin Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Xiqin Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Gongzheng Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Lianxing Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Xinxing Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Qingling Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Nongfeng Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Yuejin Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Shuangcheng
Lalin Manchu Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Wuchang
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Wuchang
Niujia Manchu Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Wuchang
Yingchengzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Wuchang
Shuangqiaozi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Wuchang
Liaodian Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Harbin	Acheng
Shuishiying Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Qiqihar	Ang'angxi
Youyi Daur, Kirgiz and Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Qiqihar	Fuyu
Taha Manchu and Daur Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Qiqihar	Fuyu
Jiangnan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Mudanjiang	Ning'an
Chengdong Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Mudanjiang	Ning'an
Sijiazi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Heihe	Aihui
Yanjiang Daur and Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Heihe	Sunwu
Suisheng Manchu Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Beilin
Yong'an Manchu Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Beilin
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Beilin
Huiqi Manchu Ethnic Town	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Wangkui
Xiangbai Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Wangkui
Lingshan Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Suihua	Wangkui
Fuxing Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Hegang	Suibin
Chengfu Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township	Heilongjiang	Shuangyashan	Youyi
Longshan Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Siping	Gongzhuling
Ershijiazi Manchu Ethnic Town	Jilin	Siping	Gongzhuling
Sanjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Yanbian	Hunchun
Yangpao Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Yanbian	Hunchun
Wulajie Manchu Ethnic Town	Jilin	Jilin City	Longtan
Dakouqin Manchu Ethnic Town	Jilin	Jilin City	Yongji
Liangjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Jilin City	Yongji
Jinjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Jilin City	Yongji
Tuchengzi Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township	Jilin	Jilin City	Yongji
Jindou Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Tonghua	Tonghua County
Daquanyuan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township	Jilin	Tonghua	Tonghua County
Xiaoyang Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township	Jilin	Tonghua	Meihekou
Sanhe Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township	Jilin	Liaoyuan	Dongfeng County
Mantang Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Shenyang	Dongling
Liushutun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Shenyang	Kangping
Shajintai Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Shenyang	Kangping
Dongsheng Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Shenyang	Kangping
Liangguantun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Shenyang	Kangping
Shihe Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Dalian	Jinzhou
Qidingshan Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Jinzhou
Taling Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Zhuanghe
Gaoling Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Zhuanghe
Guiyunhua Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Zhuanghe
Sanjiashan Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Zhuanghe
Yangjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Wafangdian
Santai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Wafangdian
Laohutun Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dalian	Wafangdian
Dagushan Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Anshan	Qianshan
Songsantaizi Korean and Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Anshan	Qianshan
Lagu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Fushun	Fushun County
Tangtu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Fushun	Fushun County
Sishanling Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Benxi	Nanfen
Xiamatang Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Benxi	Nanfen
Huolianzhai Hui and Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Benxi	Xihu
Helong Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Dandong	Donggang
Longwangmiao Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Dandong	Donggang
Juliangtun Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Jiudaoling Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Dizangsi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Hongqiangzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Liulonggou Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Shaohuyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Dadingpu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Toutai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Toudaohe Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Chefang Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Wuliangdian Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Yi
Baichanmen Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Heishan
Zhen'an Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Heishan
Wendilou Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Linghai
Youwei Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Jinzhou	Linghai
East Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Fuxin	Zhangwu
West Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Fuxin	Zhangwu
Jidongyu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Liaoyang	Liaoyang County
Shuiquan Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Liaoyang	Liaoyang County
Tianshui Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Liaoyang	Liaoyang County
Quantou Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Tieling	Changtu County
Babaotun Manchu, Xibe and Korean Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Tieling	Kaiyuan
Huangqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Kaiyuan
Shangfeidi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Kaiyuan
Xiafeidi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Kaiyuan
Linfeng Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Kaiyuan
Baiqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Tieling County
Hengdaohezi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Tieling County
Chengping Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Dexing Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Helong Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Jinxing Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Mingde Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Songshu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Yingcheng Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Tieling	Xifeng
Xipingpo Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Dawangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Fanjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Gaodianzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Gejia Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Huangdi Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Huangjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Kuanbang Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Mingshui Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Shahe Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Wanghu Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Xiaozhuangzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Yejia Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Gaotai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Suizhong
Baita Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Caozhuang Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Dazhai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Dongxinzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Gaojialing Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Guojia Manchu Ethnic Town	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Haibin Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Hongyazi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Jianjin Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Jianchang Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Jiumen Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Liutaizi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Nandashan Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Shahousuo Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Wanghai Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Weiping Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Wenjia Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Yang'an Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Yaowangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Yuantaizi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Xingcheng
Erdaowanzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Jianchang
Xintaimen Manchu Ethnic Township	Liaoning	Huludao	Lianshan
Manzutun Manchu Ethnic Township	Inner Mongolia	Hinggan	Horqin Right Front Banner
Guanjiayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township	Inner Mongolia	Chifeng	Songshan
Shijia Manchu Ethnic Township	Inner Mongolia	Chifeng	Harqin Banner
Caonian Manchu Ethnic Township	Inner Mongolia	Ulanqab	Liangcheng
Sungezhuang Manchu Ethnic Township	Tianjin	N/A	Ji

• Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.Template:Efn
  Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.Template:Efn
• Manchu autonomous area in Jilin.
  Manchu autonomous area in Jilin.
• Manchu autonomous area in Hebei.
  Manchu autonomous area in Hebei.

Other areas

Template:Further Manchu people living outside mainland China include approximately 12,000 Manchus in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. One notable example was Puru, a famous painter and calligrapher who founded the Manchu Association of the Republic of China.

Genetics

Manchu and qiren (旗人; bannermen) were declared legally equivalent in the 17th century. The Qianlong Emperor referred to all bannermen (whether Manchu or qiren) as Manchu, and referred to all civilians as Han or min (民).<ref name="auto3">Template:Cite book</ref> Modern China allows all members of the Eight Banner System to register as Manchu, which inflates modern population numbers of Manchus by including non-Jurchen ancestral sources.<ref name="rhoads20003">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Additionally, as Manchu identity was traditionally patrilineal, even if the mother was not Manchu, the child would be registered as Manchu as long as the father was in the Manchu banners.Template:Rp The Manchu banners were never genetically homogeneous, as ethnicity was fluid.<ref name=":23">Template:Cite book</ref>

Manchu identity itself was diverse. It comprised the Jianzhou and Haixi Jurchen tribes, and two Yeren Jurchen tribes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Hulun confederacy of the Haixi Jurchens had intermarried with the Khorchin and Kharchin Mongols to such an extent that Nurhaci of the Jianzhou Jurchens described them as "Mongols" to denote their culture as alien and hostile.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Jurchen tribes themselves also included people of Han Chinese descent. Han who had moved to Nurgan (in present-day Jilin Province) before 1618 and adopted the Jurchen culture and language were recognized as Jurchens and became part of the Manchu banners. These Han were known as "transfrontiersmen"Template:Citation needed and became part of the Jurchen elite. They had assimilated into Jurchen culture to the extent that their ancestry was the only thing that differentiated them from the Jurchens. Meanwhile, other Jurchens who had moved to Liaodong and had adopted Han customs and language were regarded as Han, and could became part of the Han banners but not the Manchu banners.<ref name=":23" />

Furthermore, the Manchu banners developed a division between the higher ranking "Old Manchus" formed of the main Jurchen tribes such as the Jianzhou and the lower ranking "New Manchus" (伊車滿洲/衣車滿洲; i'ce manju; or 新滿洲) from other Tungusic and Mongolic tribes such as the Daur, Oroqen, Solon, Nanai, Udege, and Sibe from the northeast who were incorporated into the Manchu banners by the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors after 1644.<ref name="auto3" />

Paternal Y Haplogroups

A study on the Manchu population of Liaoning reported a close genetic relationship and significant admixture signals from Northern Han Chinese. The Liaoning Manchu were formed from a major ancestral component related to Yellow River farmers and a minor ancestral component linked to ancient populations from the Amur River Basin, or others. The Manchu were therefore an exception to the coherent genetic structure of Tungusic-speaking populations, likely due to the large-scale population migrations.<ref>Template:Cite journal Template:CC-notice</ref>

A 2010 study reported that in a sample of 111 Liaoning Manchus and 25 Heilongjiang Manchus, 25 Liaoning Manchus (22.52%) and 11 Heilongjiang Manchus (44.00%) had Y haplogroup C. The same study reported that in a sample of 115 Han Chinese from Shandong and 66 Han Chinese from Henan, 13 of the Shandong Han (11.30%) and 8 of the Henan Han (12.12%) had haplogroup C, suggesting that the old Manchus might have had a higher proportion of haplogroup C than typically found in the Chinese Central Plains. It also reported that Han Chinese in the three provinces of Manchuria (Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang) had higher proportions of Haplogroup C than the Shandong and Henan samples, suggesting that many Han Chinese in Manchuria could have paternal ancestry from native ethnic Manchurian groups. In this study, 22.50% of the Liaoning Han (9/40), 16.67% of the Jilin Han (14/84), and 15.32% of the Heilongjiang Han (19/124) had haplogroup C.Template:Sfn

The Y DNA of the royal Aisin Gioro clan is believed to be C2b1a3a2-F8951, which is a subclade of C2a-L1373, the "northern" branch of haplogroup C2-M217. The Aisin Gioro paternal lineage is also closely related to that of the Ao clan of the Daghur ethnic group.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the database of the Chinese DNA company 23Mofang, 1/3 of the Gūwalgiya clan have haplogroup C-F11330, which also descended from the northern C2a-L1373.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the 23Mofang database, 40% of the Yehe Nara clan have haplogroup C, and 20% have C-MF46267, which descended from C-M407, the same branch as Dayan Khan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> C-M407 is also predominant among Buryats and Oirats, suggesting that they may share similar paternal origins with the Yehe Nara clan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Autosomal DNA

Manchus can be modeled as having West Liao River-related ancestry (83%) and Iron Age Taiwan-related ancestry (17%). There's also no significant evidence of West Eurasian admixture in Manchus compared to their Tungusic neighbors. Overall, Manchus cluster with North Chinese, some Yugurs and Koreans, who themselves cluster with Japanese.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

According to a 2023 study, Manchus are genetically distinct from Northeastern Han due to strict endogamy. Northeastern Han, in contrast, cluster with Han Chinese from the Central Plains and the Sichuan Qiang population, suggesting historic miscegenation. The genetic distance between Manchus and Han Chinese also increase as one moves northwards from Liaoning towards Heilongjiang.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Culture

Influence on other Tungusic peoples

The Manchus implemented measures to Manchufy the other Tungusic peoples living around the Amur River basin.<ref name="rawski19982">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The southern Tungusic Manchus influenced the northern Tungusic peoples linguistically, culturally, and religiously.<ref name="rawski19982" />Template:Rp

Language

File:An Activity of Manchu Language by the Government and students in Changchun.jpg

"Banjin Inenggi" and Manchu linguistic activity by the government and students in Changchun, 2011

The Manchu language is a Tungusic language and has many dialects. Standard Manchu originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens<ref name="aisingioro20045">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp and was officially standardized during Qianlong's reign.<ref name="tong20094">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp During the Qing dynasty, Manchus at the imperial court were required to speak Standard Manchu or face the emperor's reprimand.<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:Rp This applied equally to the palace presbyter for shamanic rites when performing sacrifice.<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:Rp

After the 19th century, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number of Manchu speakers was dwindling.<ref name="tong20094" />Template:Rp Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of the Manchu language, after the Qing dynasty collapsed, Manchu lost its status as a national language and its official use in education ended. Manchus generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi (Template:Manchu), Heilongjiang Province.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Since the government workers, scholars, and social activists have begun to resurrect Manchu.Template:Rp With the help of governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools offer Manchu classes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Manchu volunteers in many parts of China teach Manchu.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Thousands of non-Manchus have learned the language through these pathways.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In an effort to save Manchu culture from extinction, the older generation of Manchus teach young people; often without charge.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Alphabet

The Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchus, created Jurchen script during the Jin dynasty. After the Jin dynasty collapsed, the Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming dynasty, 60–70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters, while 30–40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.<ref name="fuge4">Template:Cite book</ref> This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming Empire. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded scholars Gagai and Eldeni to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.<ref name="jiang1980">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp They created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" (Template:Manchu; Template:Lang-zh) or "old Manchu script" (Template:Lang-zh).<ref name="liuzhaozhao4">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Due to its hurried creation, the script has defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.<ref name="ortai19854">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="tong20094"/>Template:Rp Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Lifestyle

The Manchu were sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops and practiced hunting and mounted archery.<ref name="crossley20023">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Wakeman1986"/>Template:Rp

The southern Tungusic Manchu sedentary lifestyle was different from the nomadic hunter gatherer forager lifestyle of their more northern Tungusic relatives like the Warka, which caused the Qing state to attempt to force them to adopt the sedentary farming lifestyle of the Manchus.<ref name="norman3">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Names and naming practices

Family names

File:《八旗满洲氏族通谱》满文版书影.jpg

the cover of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book

The history of Manchu family names follows the Jurchen family name.<ref name="jin20093">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jin dynasty, the Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name until the end of the Qing dynasty,<ref name="jin20093" />Template:Rp a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they do not have family names.<ref name="aisingioro20045"/>Template:Rp

A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode, Abkai: Mukvn) which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala" (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode), represents the clan name.<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:Rp According to the Book of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans (Template:Lang), Manchu's use 1,114 family names. Gūwalgiya, Niohuru, Hešeri, Šumulu, Tatara, Gioro, Nara are considered as "famous clans" (Template:Lang) among Manchus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Stories tell of Han migrating to the Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society. Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Manchu Cuigiya (Template:Lang) clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Tohoro (Template:Lang) clan (Duanfang's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin.<ref name="TuanFang"/><ref name="Rhoads2011 23">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Taveirne20043">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="crossley20003">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Given names

Template:MainManchus given names are distinctive. Generally, they take several forms, such as bearing suffixes "-ngga", "-ngge" or "-nggo", meaning "having the quality of";<ref name="aisingioro20045"/>Template:Rp bearing Mongol style suffixes "-tai" or "-tu", meaning "having";Template:Rp<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:Rp bearing the suffix, "-ju", "-boo";Template:Rp numeralsTemplate:Rp<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:RpTemplate:Efn} or animal names.<ref name="aisingioro20045" />Template:RpTemplate:RpTemplate:Efn}

Some ethnic names can be a given name. One of the common first name is Nikan, which is also a Manchu exonym for the Han Chinese.Template:Rp For example, Nikan Wailan was a Jurchen leader who was an enemy of Nurhaci.<ref name="crossley20003"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Wakeman1986"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Wakeman19773">Template:Cite book</ref> Nikan was also the name of one of the Aisin-Gioro princes and grandsons of Nurhaci who supported Prince Dorgon.<ref name="rawski19982"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Wakeman1986" />Template:Rp<ref name="Lui19893">Template:Cite book</ref> Nurhaci's first son was Cuyen, one of whose sons was Nikan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,Template:Efn a Chinese family name and Manchu given nameTemplate:Efn or both Manchu family and given names.Template:Efn

Burial customs

The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants originally practiced cremation and almost all of them practice it today. Very few adopted the practice of burial from some Han Chinese.Template:Rp Princes were cremated on pyres.<ref name="LachKley19983">Template:Cite book</ref>

Hair

The traditional hairstyle for Manchu men is shaving the front of their heads while growing the hair on the back of their heads into a single braid called a queue (Template:Lang-zh), known as soncoho in Manchu. During the Qing dynasty, the queue was legally mandated for male Ming Chinese subjects. The Ming were to shave their foreheads and begin growing the queue within ten days of the order. If they refused to comply they were executed for treason. Throughout the rest of the Qing dynasty, the queue was seen as a loyalty signal as it showed who had submitted. As the Qing dynasty came to an end, the hairstyle shifted from a symbol of loyalty to a symbol of feudalism, which led many men to cut off their cues as a statement of rebellion. These acts gave China a step toward modernization and moved it away from imperial rule as China began to adopt more of Western culture, including fashion and appearance.

Manchu women wore their hair in a distinctive hairstyle called liangbatou (Template:Lang).

Garments

File:康熙帝南巡图卷，治黃河.jpg

Han and Manchu clothing coexisted during Qing dynasty

File:清劉閬春繪農村演戲圖.jpg

Han Chinese clothing in early Qing

A common misconception among Han Chinese held that Manchu clothing was distinct from Hanfu.<ref name="rawski19982"/> Manchu clothes were actually modified Ming Hanfu, despite Manchu efforts to present their attire as unique.<ref name="rawski19982" /> Lacking their own textiles, Manchus initially acquired Ming dragon robes and cloth through tribute or trade. They adapted these robes by narrowing sleeves with fur cuffs and adding slits to the skirt for falconry, horse riding, and archery.<ref name="boardofrites4">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp A strip of cloth was added at the waist, with the skirt pleated for a snug fit.<ref name="boardofrites4"/>Template:Rp Sable fur was incorporated into skirts, cuffs, and collars, trimming Ming dragon robes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Manchus modified Han Chinese court costumes by adding a large ceremonial collar (da-ling) or shawl collar (pijian-ling).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The belief that Manchu hunting attire evolved into Qing clothing arose from comparing the straight-cut Ming garments with the irregularly shaped Qing long pao and chao fu. Western scholars mistakenly viewed these as purely Manchu. Excavations from Ming tombs, such as the Wanli emperor's, revealed chao fu robes with embroidered or woven dragons, similar to Qing chao fu, but distinct from long pao dragon robes. Flared skirts with right-side fastenings and fitted bodices were found in Beijing, Shanxi, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, and Shandong tombs of Ming officials and imperial family.<ref name="dusenburybier20044">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:RpMing chao fu upper sleeves had two attached cloth pieces, a feature retained in Qing chao fu with sleeve extensions. Qing long pao resembled Yuan dynasty clothing, such as robes from Li Youan's Shandong tomb, with flared hems and tight arms and torso.<ref name="dusenburybier20044"/>Template:Rp Ming robes drew from earlier Han Chinese dynasties, while Qing chao fu appeared in official portraits, unlike Ming chao fu, suggesting they were worn under formal robes. In Japan's Nara, the Shosoin repository at Todaiji temple holds 30 Tang dynasty short coats (hanpi), influencing Ming dragon robes. These consist of a skirt and bodice with distinct fabrics and patterns, shaping Qing chao fu.<ref name="dusenburybier20044" />Template:Rp Cross-over closures appear in both hanpi and Ming garments. Tombs from the Han dynasty and Jin dynasty (266–420) in Yingban, near the Tianshan mountains in Xinjiang, contain clothing resembling Qing long pao and Tang hanpi, indicating a long-standing Chinese garment tradition influencing Qing chao fu.<ref name="dusenburybier20044" />Template:Rp Ming robes, the basis for Qing chao fu, were prestigious burial attire despite rare depiction in portraits. Qing rulers emulated ancient Chinese practices to assert legitimacy, reviving rituals and designing sacrificial vessels closer to ancient Chinese models than Ming ones.<ref name="dusenburybier20044" />Template:Rp Tungusic groups like the Udeghe, Ulchi, and Nanai on the Amur River adopted Chinese influences, including dragon-adorned ceremonial robes, scroll and spiral designs, and technologies like silk, cotton, and heated houses.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Spencer Museum of Art holds six long pao robes of Han Chinese Qing nobility.<ref name="dusenburybier20044" />Template:Rp Han Chinese and Manchu nobles had two skirt slits, while the imperial family had four. Qing sumptuary laws permitted nine dragons for first- to third-rank officials and nobles, with four-clawed dragons for officials and nobles, and five-clawed dragons for the imperial family. Han Chinese nobles' robes at the Spencer Museum feature five-clawed dragons, violating these laws.<ref name="dusenburybier20044" />Template:Rp

File:ZhangZhiyuan.jpg

Han Chinese general Zhang Zhiyuan in Qing military attire.<ref name="boardofrites4"/>Template:Rp

Early Manchu clothing followed Jurchen tradition, favoring white.Template:Sfn Robes, designed for archery, were the most common garment.<ref name="wang19853">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp A surcoat, derived from the Eight Banners military uniform, was often worn over the robe, gaining popularity among commoners during the Kangxi period.<ref name="wang19853" />Template:Rp Modern Chinese suits like the Cheongsam and Tangzhuang evolved from these.<ref name="wang19853" />Template:Rp <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Manchu hats, worn year-round by all ages, contrasted with Han Chinese custom of wearing hats from age 20.<ref name="wang19853" />Template:Rp Formal hats used straw for spring and summer, fur for fall and winter, while casual hats were called Mandarin hats in English.<ref name="wang19853" /> Manchu women traditionally wore three earrings per ear, a practice continued by some older women.<ref name=":13">Template:Cite book</ref> Men wore one earring in youth, but none as adults.<ref name="jin20093"/>Template:Rp The fergetun, a thumb ring originally made from reindeer bone for archery, became decorative, with valuable versions in jade or ivory after 1644.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> High-heeled shoes were common among Manchu women.<ref name=":13" />

File:ZhangZhiyuan.jpg

Han Chinese general Zhang Zhiyuan wearing Qing military outfit.<ref name="boardofrites4"/>Template:Rp

Activities

Riding and archery

File:Hunting Journey on Horseback.jpg

Painting of the Qianlong Emperor hunting

Riding and archery (Template:Manchu) are significant to Manchus. They were well-trained horsemen.Template:Sfn Huangtaiji said, "Riding and archery are the most important martial arts of our country".<ref name="jiang1980"/>Template:Rp<ref name=various/>Template:Rp The Qing dynasty treasured riding and archery.<ref name=liu2008>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Every spring and fall, ordinary Manchus to aristocrats took riding and archery tests. The results could affect their rank in the nobility.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp The Manchus of the early Qing dynasty had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two bodies.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp

In the middle period of the Qing dynasty, archery became more a form of entertainment such as hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk targets. The most difficult was shooting a candle hanging in the air at night.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Gambling was banned, but archery contests were not limited. It was common for Manchus to put signs in front of their houses to invite challenges.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp After the Qianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected riding and archery, even though their rulers did encourage Manchus to continue their traditions.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp These traditions are still practiced among some Manchus.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

• Hunting party 1
  Hunting party 1
• Hunting party 2
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• Hunting party 3
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• Hunting party 4
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• Hunting party 5
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• Hunting party 6
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• Hunting party 7
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• Hunting party 12
  Hunting party 12

Wrestling

File:Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg

Manchu wrestlers competed in front of the Qianlong Emperor

Manchu wrestling (Template:Manchu)<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp is an important martial art of the Manchu people.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, bökh.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling, which emerged from Khitan wrestling, which was similar to Mongolian wrestling.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp In the Yuan dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including bökh.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as part of military training.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp and in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wrestlers.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp The Qing court established the Shan Pu Battalion and chose 200 wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, shuai jiao, which is its most important part.<ref name=jinkaihe/>Template:Rp Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted the most Manchu wrestling moves.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Falconry

As a result of their hunting traditions, Manchus are interested in falconry.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Gyrfalcon (Template:Manchu) is the most highly valued discipline in Manchu falconry.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Professional falconers lived in Ningguta area (today's Heilongjiang province and the northern part of Jilin province).<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Beijing's Manchus also practice falconry. Compared to Manchuria, it is more of an entertainment.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp The Imperial Household Department of Beijing kept professional falconers. They provided falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt each fall.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Manchu traditional falconry continues to be practised in some regions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Ice skating

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The performance of Manchu palace skaters on holiday

Ice skating (Template:Manchu) is another Manchu pastime. The Qianlong Emperor called it a "national custom".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,<ref name=bingxi>Template:Cite web</ref> performed by the "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" (Template:Lang)<ref name=bingxi/> which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.<ref name=bingxi/> The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the Jiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion (Template:Lang) originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion".<ref name=bingxi/>

In the 1930s–1940s, Wu Tongxuan was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's regency.<ref name=imanchu>Template:Cite web</ref> He appeared in many Beijing skating rinks.<ref name=imanchu/> Twentieth century Manchu figure skaters include world champions Zhao Hongbo and Tong Jian.Template:Citation needed

Literature

The Tale of the Nisan Shaman (Template:Manchu; Template:Lang) is the most important piece of Manchu literature.<ref name=dekdenggeetal>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp It primarily recounts how Nisan Shaman helps revive a young hunter.<ref name=dekdenggeetal/>Template:Rp The story spread to Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples.<ref name=dekdenggeetal/>Template:Rp It has four versions: a handwritten version from Qiqihar; two handwritten versions from Aigun; and one by Manchu writer Dekdengge in Vladivostok (Template:Manchu<ref name=dekdenggeetal/>Template:Rp). The four versions are similar, but Haišenwei's is the most complete.<ref name=dekdenggeetal/>Template:Rp It has been translated into Russian, Chinese, English and other languages.<ref name=dekdenggeetal/>Template:Rp

Literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers includes The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters (Template:Lang), Template:Ill (Template:Lang) and Template:Ill (Template:Lang).

Folk art

Octagonal drum

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Octagonal drum performance on stage

Octagonal drum is a type of Manchu folk art that was popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp It is said that octagonal drum originated with the snare drum of the Eight-banner military and the music was made by banner soldiers on the way home from victory in the battle of Jinchuan.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp The drum is composed of wood surrounded by bells. The drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp The colors of the tassels are yellow, white, red, and blue, which represent the four colors of the Eight Banners.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Drummers use their fingers to hit the drumhead and shake the drum to ring the bells.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Traditionally, octagonal drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the third is the singer.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp

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Template:Ill, Manchu singer and ulabun artist

"Zidishu" is the main libretto of octagonal drum and can be traced back to a type of traditional folk music called the "Manchu Rhythm".<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Although Zidishu was not created by Han Chinese, it contains many themes from Chinese stories,<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber, Romance of the Western Chamber, Legend of the White Snake and Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Additionally, many works depict the lives of Bannermen. Aisin-Gioro Yigeng, whose pen name was "Helü" and wrote the sigh of old imperial bodyguard, as the representative author.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Zidishu involves two acts of singing, which are called dongcheng and xicheng.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp

After the fall of the Qing, the influence of the octagonal drum gradually declined. However, the Template:Ill<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp and crosstalk<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which incorporates octagonal drum, remain popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were artists of octagonal drum, such as De Shoushan and Zhang Sanlu.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp

Ulabun

Ulabun (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode) is a form of Manchu storytelling entertainment.<ref name=iel>Template:Cite web</ref> Ulabun is popular among the Manchu people living in Manchuria. It has two main categories; one is popular folk literature such as the Tale of the Nisan Shaman, the other is from folk music with an informative and independent plot.<ref name=iel/>

Religion

Originally, Manchus and their predecessors were principally Buddhists with Shamanist influences. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus adopted Confucianism from Chinese culture along with Buddhism and discouraged shamanism.

Manchu shamanism

Shamanism has a long history in Manchu civilization and influenced it over thousands of years. John Keay states in A History of China that shaman is the single loan-word from Manchurian into the English language.Template:Citation needed After the conquest of China, although Manchus officially adopted Buddhism and widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions could still be found in soul worship, totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Apart from Shamanic shrines in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists and Lamaists was often heard in Manchuria, but the Manchu emperors officially helped Lamaists.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp

Buddhism

Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus adopted the Buddhism of Balhae, Goryeo, Liao and Song in the 10–13th centuries,<ref name=buddhism>Template:Cite web</ref> so it was familiar to the Manchus. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded as Mañjuśrī in Tibetan Buddhism<ref name=meng2006/>Template:Rp and had high attainments.<ref name=buddhism/><ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp

Hong Taiji who was of Mongolian descent started leaning towards Chan Buddhism, the Chinese form known in Japan as Zen Buddhism. Still, Huangtaiji patronized Tibetan Buddhism extensively and publicly.<ref name=Wakeman1986/>Template:Rp<ref name=cambridge>Template:Cite book</ref> Huangtaiji patronized Buddhism but allegedly felt Tibetan Buddhism to be inferior to Chan Buddhism.<ref name=cambridge/>

The Qianlong Emperor's faith in Tibetan Buddhism was later questioned because the emperor indicated that he supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist Gelukpa sect)<ref name=dunnelletal>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

This policy of only supporting the "Yellow Hats" was used to deflect Han criticism by the Qianlong Emperor, who had the "Lama Shuo" stele engraved in Tibetan, Mongol, Manchu and Chinese, which said: "By patronizing the Yellow Church we maintain peace among the Mongols."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It seems he was wary of the rising power of the Tibetan K,ingdom and its influence over the Mongolians and Manchu public, princes and generals.

Chinese folk religion

Manchus were affected by Chinese folk religions for most of the Qing dynasty.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Save for ancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered to be the God Protector of the Nation and was worshipped by Manchus. They referred to him as "Lord Guan" (Template:Lang). Uttering his name was taboo.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp In addition, Manchus worshipped Cai Shen and the Kitchen God just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods was also reported.<ref name=jin2009/>Template:Rp

Christianity

Roman Catholic

Influenced by the Jesuit missionaries in China, many Manchus adopted Catholicism.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp The earliest Manchu Catholics appeared in the 1650s.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp In the Yongzheng eras, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince, was a Catholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was baptised and named "Maria".<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp The sons of Doro Beile Sunu also became devout Catholics.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp These Manchu Catholics were persecuted by Qing emperors but they refused to renounce their faith.<ref name=liu2008/>Template:Rp Manchu Catholics continued in modern times, too, such as Ying Lianzhi, the founder of Fu Jen Catholic University.

Holidays

Manchus celebrated many traditional holidays. Some are derived from Chinese culture, such as the "Spring Festival"<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Duanwu Festival.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Some are of Manchu origin. Food Exhaustion Day (Template:Lang), on every 26th day of the 8th month of the lunar calendar, is another example that was inspired by a story that once Nurhaci and his troops were in a battle and almost running out of food. The villagers who lived nearby heard of the emergency and came to help. Soldiers used perilla leaves to wrap rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. To encourage later generations to remember this hardship, Nurhaci made this day "Food Exhaustion Day". Traditionally, Manchus eat perilla or cabbage wraps with rice, scrambled eggs, beef or pork.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Banjin Inenggi (Template:ManchuSibeUnicode), on the 13th day of the tenth month of the lunar calendar, which started to be celebrated in late 20th century, is the anniversary of the creation of the Manchu name.<ref name=yan2008/>Template:Rp On that day in 1635, Hong Taiji changed the group's name from Jurchen to Manchu.<ref name=various/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

See also

• Manchu language and alphabet
• Manchu name and clans
• Manchuria
• Manchukuo
• Qing dynasty and emperors
• Eight Banners and their identity
• Tungusic peoples
• Sushen
• Mohe
• Jurchen
• Sinicization of the Manchus
• Military of the Qing dynasty

References

Sources

In Chinese

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In English

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Further reading

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External links

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• Shenyang Manchu Federation (SYMZF) Template:In lang