Neoconservatism

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Template:Short description Template:Redirect-distinguish Template:Confused Template:About Template:Use American English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Conservatism US

Neoconservatism (colloquially neocon) is a political movement which began in the United States during the 1960s among liberal hawks who became disenchanted with the increasingly pacifist Democratic Party along with the growing New Left and counterculture of the 1960s. Neoconservatives typically advocate the unilateral promotion of democracy and interventionism in international relations together with a militaristic and realist philosophy of "peace through strength".<ref name="britannica">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="merriam-webster">Template:Cite web</ref>

Many adherents of neoconservatism became politically influential during Republican presidential administrations from the 1960s to the 2000s, peaking in influence during the presidency of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Prominent neoconservatives in the Bush administration included Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, Paul Bremer, and Douglas Feith.

Although U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld had not self-identified as neoconservatives, they worked closely alongside neoconservative officials in designing key aspects of the Bush administration's foreign policy; especially in their support for Israel, promotion of American influence in the Arab world and launching the war on terror.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Bush administration's domestic and foreign policies were heavily influenced by major ideologues affiliated with neoconservatism, such as Bernard Lewis, Lulu Schwartz, Richard and Daniel Pipes, David Horowitz, and Robert Kagan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Critics of neoconservatism have used the term to describe foreign policy war hawks who support aggressive militarism or neocolonialism. Historically speaking, the term neoconservative refers to a group of Trotskyist academics from New York who moved from the anti-Stalinist left to conservatism during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="Vaïsse">Template:Cite book</ref> The movement had its intellectual roots in the magazine Commentary, edited by Norman Podhoretz,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> after they spoke out against the moral relativism of the New Left, and in that way helped define the movement.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Terminology

The term neoconservative was popularized in the United States during 1973 by the socialist leader Michael Harrington, who used the term to define Daniel Bell, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, and Irving Kristol, whose ideologies differed from Harrington's.<ref name="harrington">Template:Cite journal

  • Cited in: Template:Cite book
  • Reprinted as chapter 11 in Harrington's 1976 book The Twilight of Capitalism, pp. 165–272.</ref> Earlier during 1973, he had described some of the same ideas in a brief contribution to a symposium on welfare sponsored by Commentary.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

The neoconservative label was adopted by Irving Kristol in his 1979 article "Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed 'NeoconservativeTemplate:'".<ref name="goldberg">Template:Cite journal</ref> His ideas have been influential since the 1950s, when he co-founded and edited the magazine Encounter.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Another source was Norman Podhoretz, editor of the magazine Commentary, from 1960 to 1995. By 1982, Podhoretz was terming himself a neoconservative in The New York Times Magazine article titled "The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagan's Foreign Policy".<ref name="Gerson_PR">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The term itself was the product of a rejection among formerly self-identified liberals of what they considered a growing leftward, antimilitaristic turn of the Democratic Party in the 1970s. Neoconservatives perceived an ideological effort to distance the Democratic Party and American liberalism from the hawkish Cold War liberalism as espoused by former Presidents Harry S. Truman, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. After the Vietnam War, the anti-communist, internationalist and interventionist roots of this Cold War liberalism among the Left seemed increasingly brittle to the neoconservatives. As a consequence, they migrated to the Republican Party and formed one pillar of the Reagan Coalition and of the conservative movement. Hence, they became the new conservatives, supplanting the old conservatives, who are more nationalist and non-interventionist.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

History

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Senator Henry M. Jackson, an inspiration for neoconservative foreign policy during the 1970s

According to James Nuechterlein, prior to the formation of the movement, those who would become neoconservatives endorsed the civil rights movement, racial integration, and Martin Luther King Jr.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Neoconservatism was initiated by liberals' repudiation of the Cold War and by the "New Politics" of the American Left, which Norman Podhoretz said was too sympathetic to the radical counterculture that alienated the majority of the population, and by the repudiation of "anti-anticommunism" by liberals, which included substantial endorsement of Marxist–Leninist politics by the New Left during the late 1960s. Some neoconservatives were particularly alarmed by what they believed were the antisemitic sentiments of Black Power advocates.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Irving Kristol edited the journal The Public Interest (1965–2005), featuring economists and political scientists, which emphasized ways that government planning in the liberal state had produced unintended harmful consequences.<ref>Irving Kristol, "Forty good years", Public Interest, Spring 2005, Issue 159, pp. 5–11 is Kristol's retrospective in the final issue.</ref> Some early neoconservative political figures were disillusioned Democratic politicians and intellectuals, such as Daniel Patrick Moynihan, who served in the Nixon and Ford administrations, and Jeane Kirkpatrick, who served as United States Ambassador to the United Nations in the Reagan administration. Some left-wing academics such as Frank Meyer and James Burnham eventually became associated with the conservative movement at this time.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite book</ref>

A substantial number of neoconservatives were originally moderate socialists who were originally associated with the moderate wing of the Socialist Party of America (SP) and its successor party, the Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA). Max Shachtman, a former Trotskyist theorist who developed strong feelings of antipathy towards the New Left, had numerous devotees in the SDUSA with strong links to George Meany's AFL-CIO. Following Shachtman and Meany, this faction led the SP to oppose immediate withdrawal from the Vietnam War and oppose George McGovern in the Democratic primary race and, to some extent, the general election. They also chose to cease their own party-building and concentrated on working within the Democratic Party, eventually influencing it through the Democratic Leadership Council.<ref>Justin Vaïsse, Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 214–19</ref> Thus the Socialist Party dissolved in 1972, and the SDUSA emerged that year. (Most of the left-wing of the party, led by Michael Harrington, immediately abandoned the SDUSA.)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> SDUSA leaders associated with neoconservatism include Carl Gershman, Penn Kemble, Joshua Muravchik and Bayard Rustin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Jack Ross, The Socialist Party of America: A Complete History (University of Nebraska Press, 2015), the entire Chapter 17 entitled "Social Democrats USA and the Rise of Neoconservatism Template:Webarchive"</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Norman Podhoretz's magazine Commentary, originally a journal of liberalism, became a major publication for neoconservatives during the 1970s. Commentary published an article by Jeane Kirkpatrick, an early and prototypical neoconservative. Template:Clear

Rejecting the American New Left and McGovern's New Politics

As the policies of the New Left made the Democrats increasingly leftist, these neoconservative intellectuals became disillusioned with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society domestic programs. The influential 1970 bestseller The Real Majority by Ben Wattenberg expressed that the "real majority" of the electorate endorsed economic interventionism but also social conservatism and that it could be disastrous for Democrats to adopt liberal positions on certain social and crime issues.<ref name="mason">Template:Cite book</ref>

These liberal intellectuals rejected the countercultural New Left and what they considered anti-Americanism in their pacifist activism against the Vietnam War. After the anti-war faction took control of the party during 1972 and nominated George McGovern, these liberal intellectuals endorsed Washington Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson for his unsuccessful 1972 and 1976 campaigns for president. Among those who worked for Jackson were the incipient neoconservatives Paul Wolfowitz, Doug Feith, and Richard Perle.<ref>Justin Vaïsse, Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (2010) ch 3.</ref>

During the late 1970s, neoconservatives tended to endorse Ronald Reagan, the Republican who promised to confront Soviet expansionism. Neoconservatives organized in the American Enterprise Institute and The Heritage Foundation to counter the liberal establishment.<ref>Arin, Kubilay Yado: Think Tanks, the Brain Trusts of US Foreign Policy. Wiesbaden: VS Springer 2013.</ref> Author Keith Preston named the successful effort on behalf of neoconservatives such as George Will and Irving Kristol to cancel Reagan's 1980 nomination of Mel Bradford, a Southern Paleoconservative academic whose regionalist focus and writings about Abraham Lincoln and Reconstruction alienated the more cosmopolitan and progress-oriented neoconservatives, to the leadership of the National Endowment for the Humanities in favor of longtime Democrat William Bennett as emblematic of the neoconservative movement establishing hegemony over mainstream American conservatism.<ref name="auto"/>

Template:Clear In another (2004) article, Michael Lind also wrote:<ref name="lind">Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Blockquote

Leo Strauss and his students

C. Bradley Thompson, a professor at Clemson University, claims that most influential neoconservatives refer explicitly to the theoretical ideas in the philosophy of Leo Strauss (1899–1973),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> although there are several writers who claim that in doing so they may draw upon meaning that Strauss himself did not endorse. Eugene Sheppard notes: "Much scholarship tends to understand Strauss as an inspirational founder of American neoconservatism".<ref>Eugene R. Sheppard, Leo Strauss and the politics of exile: the making of a political philosopher (2005), p. 1.</ref> Strauss was a refugee from Nazi Germany who taught at the New School for Social Research in New York (1938–1948) and the University of Chicago (1949–1969).<ref>Allan Bloom, "Leo Strauss: September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973", Political Theory, November 1974, Vol. 2 Issue 4, pp. 372–92, an obituary and appreciation by one of his prominent students.</ref>

Strauss asserted that "the crisis of the West consists in the West's having become uncertain of its purpose". His solution was a restoration of the vital ideas and faith that in the past had sustained the moral purpose of the West. The Greek classics (classical republican and modern republican), political philosophy and the Judeo-Christian heritage are the essentials of the Great Tradition in Strauss's work.<ref>John P. East, "Leo Strauss and American Conservatism", Modern Age, Winter 1977, Vol. 21 Issue 1, pp. 2–19 online Template:Webarchive.</ref><ref>"Leo Strauss's Perspective on Modern Politics" Template:Webarchive – American Enterprise Institute</ref> Strauss emphasized the spirit of the Greek classics and Thomas G. West (1991) argues that for Strauss the American Founding Fathers were correct in their understanding of the classics in their principles of justice.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

For Strauss, political community is defined by convictions about justice and happiness rather than by sovereignty and force. A classical liberal, he repudiated the philosophy of John Locke as a bridge to 20th-century historicism and nihilism and instead defended liberal democracy as closer to the spirit of the classics than other modern regimes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For Strauss, the American awareness of ineradicable evil in human nature and hence the need for morality, was a beneficial outgrowth of the pre-modern Western tradition.<ref>Thomas G. West, "Leo Strauss and the American Founding", Review of Politics, Winter 1991, Vol. 53 Issue 1, pp. 157–72.</ref> O'Neill (2009) notes that Strauss wrote little about American topics, but his students wrote a great deal and that Strauss's influence caused his students to reject historicism and positivism as morally relativist positions.<ref name=ZZ4>Catherine H. Zuckert, Michael P. Zuckert, The Truth about Leo Strauss: Political Philosophy and American Democracy, University of Chicago Press, 2008, p. 4ff.</ref> They instead promoted a so-called Aristotelian perspective on America that produced a qualified defense of its liberal constitutionalism.<ref>Johnathan O'Neill, "Straussian constitutional history and the Straussian political project", Rethinking History, December 2009, Vol. 13 Issue 4, pp. 459–78.</ref> Strauss's emphasis on moral clarity led the Straussians to develop an approach to international relations that Catherine and Michael Zuckert (2008) call Straussian Wilsonianism (or Straussian idealism), the defense of liberal democracy in the face of its vulnerability.<ref name=ZZ4/><ref>Irving Kristol, The Neo-conservative Persuasion: Selected Essays, 1942-2009, Basic Books, 2011, p. 217.</ref>

Strauss influenced The Weekly Standard editor Bill Kristol, William Bennett, Newt Gingrich, Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, as well as Paul Wolfowitz.<ref>Barry F. Seidman and Neil J. Murphy, eds. Toward a new political humanism (2004), p. 197.</ref><ref>Sheppard, Leo Strauss and the politics of exile: the making of a political philosopher (2005), pp. 1–2.</ref>

Jeane Kirkpatrick

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Jeane Kirkpatrick

A theory of neoconservative foreign policy during the final years of the Cold War was articulated by Jeane Kirkpatrick in "Dictatorships and Double Standards",<ref>Jeane Kirkpatrick, J (November 1979). "Dictatorships and Double Standards" Template:Webarchive, Commentary Magazine 68, No. 5.</ref> published in Commentary Magazine during November 1979. Kirkpatrick criticized the foreign policy of Jimmy Carter, which endorsed détente with the Soviet Union. She later served the Reagan Administration as Ambassador to the United Nations.<ref>Noah, T. (8 December 2006). Jeane Kirkpatrick, Realist Template:Webarchive. Slate Magazine. Retrieved 8 July 2012.</ref>

Skepticism towards democracy promotion

Template:See also In "Dictatorships and Double Standards", Kirkpatrick distinguished between authoritarian regimes and the totalitarian regimes such as the Soviet Union. She suggested that in some countries democracy was not tenable and the United States had a choice between endorsing authoritarian governments, which might evolve into democracies, or Marxist–Leninist regimes, which she argued had never been ended once they achieved totalitarian control. In such tragic circumstances, she argued that allying with authoritarian governments might be prudent. Kirkpatrick argued that by demanding rapid liberalization in traditionally autocratic countries, the Carter administration had delivered those countries to Marxist–Leninists that were even more repressive. She further accused the Carter administration of a "double standard" and of never having applied its rhetoric on the necessity of liberalization to communist governments. The essay compares traditional autocracies and Communist regimes: Template:Blockquote Template:Blockquote

Kirkpatrick concluded that while the United States should encourage liberalization and democracy in autocratic countries, it should not do so when the government risks violent overthrow and should expect gradual change rather than immediate transformation.<ref name="nprkirkpatrick">Template:Cite news</ref> She wrote: "No idea holds greater sway in the mind of educated Americans than the belief that it is possible to democratize governments, anytime and anywhere, under any circumstances ... Decades, if not centuries, are normally required for people to acquire the necessary disciplines and habits. In Britain, the road [to democratic government] took seven centuries to traverse. ... The speed with which armies collapse, bureaucracies abdicate, and social structures dissolve once the autocrat is removed frequently surprises American policymakers".<ref name="econkirkpatrick">Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Anchor

1990s

During the 1990s, neoconservatives were once again opposed to the foreign policy establishment, both during the Republican Administration of President George H. W. Bush and that of his Democratic successor, President Bill Clinton. Many critics charged that the neoconservatives lost their influence as a result of the end of the Soviet Union.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

After the decision of George H. W. Bush to leave Saddam Hussein in power after the first Iraq War during 1991, many neoconservatives considered this policy and the decision not to endorse indigenous dissident groups such as the Kurds and Shiites in their 1991–1992 resistance to Hussein as a betrayal of democratic principles.<ref name="http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/174894">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=Tucker2009>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Hirsh2004>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Wing2012>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=Podhoretz2006>Template:Cite news</ref>

Some of those same targets of criticism would later become fierce advocates of neoconservative policies. During 1992, referring to the first Iraq War, then United States Secretary of Defense and future Vice President Richard Cheney said: Template:Blockquote

A key neoconservative policy-forming document, A Clean Break: A New Strategy for Securing the Realm (commonly known as the "Clean Break" report) was published in 1996 by a study group of American-Jewish neoconservative strategists led by Richard Perle on the behest of newly-elected Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. The report called for a new, more aggressive Middle East policy on the part of the United States in defense of the interests of Israel, including the removal of Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq and the containment of Syria through a series of proxy wars, the outright rejection of any solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict that would include a Palestinian state, and an alliance between Israel, Turkey and Jordan against Iraq, Syria and Iran. Former United States Assistant Secretary of Defense and leading neoconservative Richard Perle was the "Study Group Leader", but the final report included ideas from fellow neoconservatives, pro-Israel right-wingers and affiliates of Netanyahu's Likud party, such as Douglas Feith, James Colbert, Charles Fairbanks Jr., Jonathan Torop, David Wurmser, Meyrav Wurmser, and IASPS president Robert Loewenberg.<ref>"A Clean Break: A New Strategy for Securing the Realm Template:Webarchive" text states, "The main substantive ideas in this paper emerge from a discussion in which prominent opinion makers, including Richard Perle, James Colbert, Charles Fairbanks, Jr., Douglas Feith, Robert Loewenberg, David Wurmser, and Meyrav Wurmser participated."</ref>

Within a few years of the Gulf War in Iraq, many neoconservatives were endorsing the ousting of Saddam Hussein. On 19 February 1998, an open letter to President Clinton was published, signed by dozens of pundits, many identified with neoconservatism and later related groups such as the Project for the New American Century, urging decisive action to remove Saddam from power.<ref>Solarz, Stephen, et al. "Open Letter to the President Template:Webarchive", 19 February 1998, online at IraqWatch.org. Retrieved 16 September 2006.</ref>

Neoconservatives were also members of the so-called "Blue Team", which argued for a confrontational policy toward the People's Republic of China (the communist government of mainland China) and for strong military and diplomatic endorsement of the Republic of China (also known as Taiwan), as they believed that China will be a threat to the United States in the future.

Early 2000s: Administration of George W. Bush and Bush Doctrine

Template:See also The Bush campaign and the early Bush administration did not exhibit strong endorsement of neoconservative principles. As a presidential candidate, Bush had argued for a restrained foreign policy, stating his opposition to the idea of nation-building.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Also early in the administration, some neoconservatives criticized Bush's administration as insufficiently supportive of Israel and suggested Bush's foreign policies were not substantially different from those of President Clinton.<ref>Template:Cite news Template:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore</ref>

File:Hosni Mubarak with George W. Bush.jpg
During November 2010, former U.S. President George W. Bush (here with the former President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak at Camp David in 2002) wrote in his memoir Decision Points that Mubarak endorsed the administration's position that Iraq had WMDs before the war with the country, but kept it private for fear of "inciting the Arab street".<ref>"Bush: Mubarak wanted me to invade Iraq" Template:Webarchive, Mohammad Sagha. Foreign Policy. 12 November 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2011</ref>

Bush's policies changed dramatically immediately after the 11 September 2001 attacks.

During Bush's State of the Union speech of January 2002, he named Iraq, Iran and North Korea as states that "constitute an axis of evil" and "pose a grave and growing danger". Bush suggested the possibility of preemptive war: "I will not wait on events, while dangers gather. I will not stand by, as peril draws closer and closer. The United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons".<ref>"The President's State of the Union Speech Template:Webarchive". White House press release, 29 January 2002.</ref><ref>"Bush Speechwriter's Revealing Memoir Is Nerd's Revenge". The New York Observer, 19 January 2003</ref>

Some major defense and national-security persons have been quite critical of what they believed was a neoconservative influence in getting the United States to go to war against Iraq.<ref>Douglas Porch, "Writing History in the 'End of History' Era – Reflections on Historians and the GWOT", Journal of Military History, October 2006, Vol. 70 Issue 4, pp. 1065–79.</ref>

Former Nebraska Republican U.S. senator and Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, who has been critical of the Bush administration's adoption of neoconservative ideology, in his book America: Our Next Chapter wrote: Template:Blockquote

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President Bush, VP Dick Cheney, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice meet with Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and his staff at the Pentagon, 14 August 2006.

The Bush Doctrine of preemptive war was stated explicitly in the National Security Council (NSC) text "National Security Strategy of the United States". published 20 September 2002: "We must deter and defend against the threat before it is unleashed ... even if uncertainty remains as to the time and place of the enemy's attack. ... The United States will, if necessary, act preemptively".<ref name="NSC">Template:Cite web</ref>

The choice not to use the word "preventive" in the 2002 National Security Strategy and instead use the word "preemptive" was largely in anticipation of the widely perceived illegality of preventive attacks in international law via both Charter Law and Customary Law.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In this context, disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, alternatively impede and facilitate studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism.

Policy analysts noted that the Bush Doctrine as stated in the 2002 NSC document had a strong resemblance to recommendations presented originally in a controversial Defense Planning Guidance draft written during 1992 by Paul Wolfowitz, during the first Bush administration.<ref>"The evolution of the Bush doctrine Template:Webarchive", in "The war behind closed doors". Frontline, PBS. 20 February 2003.</ref>

The Bush Doctrine was greeted with accolades by many neoconservatives. When asked whether he agreed with the Bush Doctrine, Max Boot said he did and that "I think [Bush is] exactly right to say we can't sit back and wait for the next terrorist strike on Manhattan. We have to go out and stop the terrorists overseas. We have to play the role of the global policeman. ... But I also argue that we ought to go further".<ref>"The Bush Doctrine" Template:Webarchive. Think Tank, PBS. 11 July 2002.</ref> Discussing the significance of the Bush Doctrine, neoconservative writer Bill Kristol claimed: "The world is a mess. And, I think, it's very much to Bush's credit that he's gotten serious about dealing with it. ... The danger is not that we're going to do too much. The danger is that we're going to do too little".<ref>"Assessing the Bush Doctrine Template:Webarchive", in "The war behind closed doors". Frontline, PBS. 20 February 2003.</ref>

2008 presidential election and aftermath

President George W. Bush and Senator John McCain at the White House, 5 March 2008, after McCain became the Republican presumptive presidential nominee

John McCain, who was the Republican candidate for the 2008 United States presidential election, endorsed continuing the second Iraq War, "the issue that is most clearly identified with the neoconservatives". The New York Times reported further that his foreign policy views combined elements of neoconservatism and the main competing conservative opinion, pragmatism, also known as realism:<ref name="nyt">Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Blockquote

Barack Obama campaigned for the Democratic nomination during 2008 by attacking his opponents, especially Hillary Clinton, for originally endorsing Bush's Iraq-war policies. Obama maintained a selection of prominent military officials from the Bush administration including Robert Gates (Bush's Defense Secretary) and David Petraeus (Bush's ranking general in Iraq). Neoconservative politician Victoria Nuland, former U.S. Ambassador to NATO under Bush, was made United States Under Secretary of State by Obama.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

2010s and early 2020s

By 2010, U.S. forces had switched from combat to a training role in Iraq and they left in 2011.<ref>Stephen McGlinchey, "Neoconservatism and American Foreign Policy", Politikon: The IAPSS Journal of Political Science, Vol. 16, 1 (October 2010).</ref> The neocons had little influence in the Obama White House,<ref name="abstract">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Robert Singh 2014 pp 29-40">Robert Singh, "Neoconservatism in the age of Obama", in Inderjeet Parmar and Linda B. Miller, eds., Obama and the World: New Directions in US Foreign Policy (Routledge 2014), pp. 29–40</ref> and neo-conservatives have lost much influence in the Republican party since the rise of the Tea Party Movement.

Several neoconservatives played a major role in the Stop Trump movement in 2016, in opposition to the Republican presidential candidacy of Donald Trump, due to his criticism of interventionist foreign policies, as well as their perception of him as an "authoritarian" figure.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After Trump took office, some neoconservatives joined his administration, such as John Bolton, Mike Pompeo, Elliott Abrams<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and Nadia Schadlow. Neoconservatives have supported the Trump administration's hawkish approach towards Iran<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and Venezuela,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> while opposing the administration's withdrawal of troops from Syria<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and diplomatic outreach to North Korea.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although neoconservatives have served in the Trump administration, they have been observed to have been slowly overtaken by the nascent populist and national conservative movements, and to have struggled to adapt to a changing geopolitical atmosphere.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The Lincoln Project, a political action committee consisting of current and former Republicans with the purpose of defeating Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election and Republican Senate candidates in the 2020 United States Senate elections, has been described as being primarily made of neoconservative activists seeking to return the Republican party to Bush-era ideology.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Although Trump was not reelected and the Republicans failed to retain a majority in the Senate, surprising success in the 2020 United States House of Representatives elections and internal conflicts led to renewed questions about the strength of neoconservatism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In the Biden administration, neoconservative Victoria Nuland retained the portfolio of Under Secretary of State she had held under Obama. President Joe Biden's top diplomat for Afghanistan, Zalmay Khalilzad, was also a neocon and a former Bush administration official.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> In the 2024 U.S. presidential election, neoconservatives including the Cheney family (Dick & Liz) and Adam Kinzinger supported Vice President Kamala Harris' campaign. After losing the election, Harris' campaign team was criticized by those within the Democratic camp for allying with neoconservatives.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Evolution of opinions

Usage and general views

During the early 1970s, socialist Michael Harrington was one of the first to use "neoconservative" in its modern meaning. He characterized neoconservatives as former leftistsTemplate:Spaced ndashwhom he derided as "socialists for Nixon"Template:Spaced ndashwho had become more conservative.<ref name="harrington"/> These people tended to remain endorsers of social democracy, but distinguished themselves by allying with the Nixon administration with respect to foreign policy, especially by their endorsement of the Vietnam War and opposition to the Soviet Union. They still endorsed the welfare state, but not necessarily in its contemporary form. Template:External media Irving Kristol remarked that a neoconservative is a "Template:Visible anchor", one who became more conservative after seeing the results of liberal policies. Kristol also distinguished three specific aspects of neoconservatism from previous types of conservatism: neo-conservatives had a forward-looking attitude from their liberal heritage, rather than the reactionary and dour attitude of previous conservatives; they had a meliorative attitude, proposing alternate reforms rather than simply attacking social liberal reforms; and they took philosophical ideas and ideologies very seriously.<ref>Kristol, Irving. "American conservatism 1945–1995 Template:Webarchive". Public Interest, Fall 1995.</ref>

During January 2009, at the end of President George W. Bush's second term in office, Jonathan Clarke, a senior fellow at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs and prominent critic of Neoconservatism, proposed the following as the "main characteristics of neoconservatism": "a tendency to see the world in binary good/evil terms", a "low tolerance for diplomacy", a "readiness to use military force", an "emphasis on US unilateral action", a "disdain for multilateral organizations" and a "focus on the Middle East".<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">"Viewpoint: The end of the neocons?" , Jonathan Clarke, British Broadcasting Corporation, 13 January 2009.</ref>

Opinions concerning foreign policy

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In foreign policy, the neoconservatives' main concern is to prevent the development of a new rival. Defense Planning Guidance, a document prepared during 1992 by Under Secretary for Defense for Policy Paul Wolfowitz, is regarded by Distinguished Professor of the Humanities John McGowan at the University of North Carolina as the "quintessential statement of neoconservative thought". The report says:<ref name="McGowan"/>

Our first objective is to prevent the re-emergence of a new rival, either on the territory of the former Soviet Union or elsewhere, that poses a threat on the order of that posed formerly by the Soviet Union. This is a dominant consideration underlying the new regional defense strategy and requires that we endeavor to prevent any hostile power from dominating a region whose resources would, under consolidated control, be sufficient to generate global power.

According to Lead Editor of e-International Relations Stephen McGlinchey: "Neo-conservatism is something of a chimera in modern politics. For its opponents it is a distinct political ideology that emphasizes the blending of military power with Wilsonian idealism, yet for its supporters it is more of a 'persuasion' that individuals of many types drift into and out of. Regardless of which is more correct, it is now widely accepted that the neo-conservative impulse has been visible in modern American foreign policy and that it has left a distinct impact".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Neoconservatism first developed during the late 1960s as an effort to oppose the radical cultural changes occurring within the United States. Irving Kristol wrote: "If there is any one thing that neoconservatives are unanimous about, it is their dislike of the counterculture".<ref>Kristol, What Is a Neoconservative? p. 87.</ref> Norman Podhoretz agreed: "Revulsion against the counterculture accounted for more converts to neoconservatism than any other single factor".<ref>Podhoretz, p. 275.</ref> Neoconservatives began to emphasize foreign issues during the mid-1970s.<ref>Vaisse, Neoconservatism (2010), p. 110.</ref>

Donald Rumsfeld and Victoria Nuland at the NATO–Ukraine consultations in Vilnius, Lithuania, 24 October 2005

In 1979, an early study by liberal Peter Steinfels concentrated on the ideas of Irving Kristol, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Daniel Bell. He noted that the stress on foreign affairs "emerged after the New Left and the counterculture had dissolved as convincing foils for neoconservatism ... The essential source of their anxiety is not military or geopolitical or to be found overseas at all; it is domestic and cultural and ideological".<ref>Steinfels, p. 69.</ref>

Neoconservative foreign policy is a descendant of so-called Wilsonian idealism. Neoconservatives endorse democracy promotion by the U.S. and other democracies, based on the conviction that natural rights are both universal and transcendent in nature. They criticized the United Nations and détente with the Soviet Union. On domestic policy, they endorse reductions in the welfare state, like European and Canadian conservatives. According to Norman Podhoretz, "'the neo-conservatives dissociated themselves from the wholesale opposition to the welfare state which had marked American conservatism since the days of the New Deal' and ... while neoconservatives supported 'setting certain limits' to the welfare state, those limits did not involve 'issues of principle, such as the legitimate size and role of the central government in the American constitutional order' but were to be 'determined by practical considerations'".<ref>Francis, Samuel (7 June 2004) Idol With Clay Feet Template:Webarchive, The American Conservative.</ref>

In April 2006, Robert Kagan wrote in The Washington Post that Russia and China may be the greatest "challenge liberalism faces today": Template:Blockquote

Trying to describe the evolution within the neoconservative school of thought is bedeviled by the fact that a coherent version of Neoconservatism is difficult to distill from the various diverging voices who are nevertheless considered to be neoconservative. On the one hand were individuals such as former Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick who embodied views that were hawkish yet still fundamentally in line with Realpolitik. The more institutionalized neoconservatism that exerted influence through think tanks, the media and government officials, rejected Realpolitik and thus the Kirkpatrick Doctrine. This rejection became an impetus to push for active US support for democratic transitions in various autocratic nations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In the 1990s leading thinkers of this modern strand of the neoconservative school of thought, Robert Kagan and Bill Kristol, published an essay in which they lay out the basic tenets of what they call a Neo-Reaganite foreign policy. In it they reject a "return to normalcy" after the end of the Cold War and argue that the United States should instead double down on defending and extending the liberal International order. They trace the origin of their approach to foreign policy back to the foundation of the United States as a revolutionary, liberal capitalist republic. As opposed to advocates of Realpolitik, they argue that domestic politics and foreign policies are inextricably linked making it natural for any nation to be influenced by ideology, ideals and concepts of morality in their respective international conduct. Hence, this archetypical neoconservative position attempts to overcome the dichotomy of pragmatism and idealism emphasizing instead that a values-driven foreign policy is not just consistent with American historical tradition but that it is in the enlightened self-interest of the United States.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Views on economics

While neoconservatism is concerned primarily with foreign policy, there is also some discussion of internal economic policies. Neoconservatism generally endorses free markets and capitalism, favoring supply-side economics, but it has several disagreements with classical liberalism and fiscal conservatism. Irving Kristol states that neocons are more relaxed about budget deficits and tend to reject the Hayekian notion that the growth of government influence on society and public welfare is "the road to serfdom".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Indeed, to safeguard democracy, government intervention and budget deficits may sometimes be necessary, Kristol argues. After the so-called "reconciliation with capitalism", self-identified "neoconservatives" frequently favored a reduced welfare state, but not its elimination.

Neoconservative ideology stresses that while free markets do provide material goods in an efficient way, they lack the moral guidance human beings need to fulfill their needs. They say that morality can be found only in tradition and that markets do pose questions that cannot be solved solely by economics, arguing: "So, as the economy only makes up part of our lives, it must not be allowed to take over and entirely dictate to our society".<ref>Murray, p. 40.</ref> Critics consider neoconservatism a bellicose and "heroic" ideology opposed to "mercantile" and "bourgeois" virtues and therefore "a variant of anti-economic thought".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Political scientist Zeev Sternhell states: "Neoconservatism has succeeded in convincing the great majority of Americans that the main questions that concern a society are not economic, and that social questions are really moral questions".<ref>Template:Cite book p. 436.</ref>

Friction with other conservatives

Many conservatives oppose neoconservative policies and have critical views on it. Disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, can impede (and facilitate) studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism, but that of course didn't, and still doesn't, stop pundits from publishing appraisals. For example, Stefan Halper and Jonathan Clarke (a libertarian based at Cato), in their 2004 book on neoconservatism, America Alone: The Neo-Conservatives and the Global Order,<ref name="America Alone">say that neocons "propose an untenable model for our nation's future" (p. 8) and then outline what they think is the inner logic of the movement:Template:Cite book</ref> characterized the neoconservatives at that time as uniting around three common themes:Template:Blockquote

Responding to a question about neoconservatives in 2004, William F. Buckley Jr. said: "I think those I know, which is most of them, are bright, informed and idealistic, but that they simply overrate the reach of U.S. power and influence".<ref name=nytmds>Sanger, Deborah, "Questions for William F. Buckley: Conservatively Speaking" Template:Webarchive, interview in The New York Times Magazine, 11 July 2004. Retrieved 6 March 2008</ref>

Friction with paleoconservatism

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Starting during the 1980s, disputes concerning Israel and public policy contributed to a conflict with paleoconservatives. Pat Buchanan terms neoconservatism "a globalist, interventionist, open borders ideology".<ref>Tolson 2003.</ref> Paul Gottfried has written that the neocons' call for "permanent revolution" exists independently of their beliefs about Israel,<ref name="gottfried48">"Fatuous and Malicious Template:Webarchive" by Paul Gottfried. LewRockwell.com, 28 March 2003.</ref> characterizing the neoconservatives as "ranters out of a Dostoyevskian novel, who are out to practice permanent revolution courtesy of the U.S. government" and questioning how anyone could mistake them for conservatives.<ref name="Goldberg Is Not the Worst">"Goldberg Is Not the Worst" Template:Webarchive by Paul Gottfried. LewRockwell.com, 20 March 2003.</ref>

What make neocons most dangerous are not their isolated ghetto hang-ups, like hating Germans and Southern whites and calling everyone and his cousin an anti-Semite, but the leftist revolutionary fury they express.<ref name="Goldberg Is Not the Worst"/>

He has also argued that domestic equality and the exportability of democracy are points of contention between them.<ref>Paul Gottfried's Paleoconservatism article in "American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia" (ISI:2006)</ref>

Paul Craig Roberts, United States Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Economic Policy during the Reagan administration and associated with paleoconservatism stated in 2003 that "there is nothing conservative about neoconservatives. Neocons hide behind 'conservative' but they are in fact Jacobins. Jacobins were the 18th century French revolutionaries whose intention to remake Europe in revolutionary France's image launched the Napoleonic Wars".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Trotskyism allegation

Template:See also Critics have argued that since the founders of neo-conservatism included ex-Trotskyists, Trotskyist traits continue to characterize neo-conservative ideologies and practices.<ref name="FA">Template:Cite news</ref> During the Reagan administration, the charge was made that the foreign policy of the Reagan administration was being managed by ex-Trotskyists. This claim was cited by Seymour Martin Lipset<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref>, who was a neoconservative and former Trotskyist himself.<ref name="Lip34">"A 1987 article in The New Republic described these developments as a Trotskyist takeover of the Reagan administration", wrote Template:Harvtxt.</ref> This "Trotskyist" charge was repeated and widened by journalist Michael Lind during 2003 to assert a takeover of the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration by former Trotskyists;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Lind's "amalgamation of the defense intellectuals with the traditions and theories of 'the largely Jewish-American Trotskyist movement' [in Lind's words]" was criticized during 2003 by University of Michigan professor Alan M. Wald,<ref name="harv27June2003">Template:Cite journal</ref> who had discussed Trotskyism in his history of "The New York Intellectuals".<ref name="Wald">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="tandfonline">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal The question of 'Shachtmanism'</ref>

The charge that neoconservativism is related to Leninism has also been made by Francis Fukuyama. He argued that both believe in the "existence of a long-term process of social evolution", though neoconservatives seek to establish liberal democracy instead of communism.<ref name="Fukuyama">Fukuyama, F. (19 February 2006). After Neoconservatism Template:Webarchive. The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 1 December 2008.</ref> He wrote that neoconservatives "believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. Leninism was a tragedy in its Bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support".<ref name="Fukuyama"/> However, these comparisons ignore anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist positions central to Leninism, which run contradictory to core neoconservative beliefs.<ref>"Imperialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998), by Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham. p. 244.</ref>

Criticism

Critics of neoconservatism take issue with neoconservatives' support for interventionistic foreign policy. Critics from the left take issue with what they characterize as unilateralism and lack of concern with international consensus through organizations such as the United Nations.<ref>Template:Cite news Kinsley quotes Rich Lowry, whom he describes as "a conservative of the non-neo variety", as criticizing the neoconservatives "messianic vision" and "excessive optimism"; Kinsley contrasts the present-day neoconservative foreign policy to earlier neoconservative Jeane Kirkpatrick's "tough-minded pragmatism".</ref><ref>Martin Jacques, "The neocon revolution ", The Guardian, 31 March 2005. Retrieved 25 December 2006. (Cited for "unilateralism".)</ref><ref>Rodrigue Tremblay, "The Neo-Conservative Agenda: Humanism vs. Imperialism Template:Webarchive", presented at the Conference at the American Humanist Association annual meeting Las Vegas, 9 May 2004. Retrieved 25 December 2006 on the site of the Mouvement laïque québécois.</ref>

Critics from both the left and right have assailed neoconservatives for the role Israel plays in their policies on the Middle East.<ref>[1] Template:Webarchive Dual Loyalty?, By Rebecca Phillips, ABC News, 15 March 2003</ref><ref>[2] Template:Webarchive Joe Klein on Neoconservatives and Iran, Jeffrey Goldberg, The Atlantic, 29 July 2008</ref>

Neoconservatives respond by describing their shared opinion as a belief that national security is best attained by actively promoting freedom and democracy abroad as in the democratic peace theory through the endorsement of democracy, foreign aid and in certain cases military intervention. This is different from the traditional conservative tendency to endorse friendly regimes in matters of trade and anti-communism even at the expense of undermining existing democratic systems.

In a column on The New York Times named "Years of Shame" commemorating the tenth anniversary of 9/11, Paul Krugman criticized them for causing a supposedly entirely unrelated war.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Adherence to conservatism

Former Republican Congressman Ron Paul (now a Libertarian politician) has been a longtime critic of neoconservativism as an attack on freedom and the Constitution, including an extensive speech on the House floor addressing neoconservative beginnings and how neoconservatism is neither new nor conservative.<ref>Archived at GhostarchiveTemplate:Cbignore and the Wayback MachineTemplate:Cbignore: Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref>

Imperialism and secrecy

Template:See also John McGowan, professor of humanities at the University of North Carolina, states after an extensive review of neoconservative literature and theory that neoconservatives are attempting to build an American Empire, seen as successor to the British Empire, its goal being to perpetuate a "Pax Americana". As imperialism is largely considered unacceptable by the American media, neoconservatives do not articulate their ideas and goals in a frank manner in public discourse. McGowan states:<ref name="McGowan">Template:Cite book</ref> Template:Blockquote

Notable people associated with neoconservatism

The list includes public people identified as personally neoconservative at an important time or a high official with numerous neoconservative advisers, such as George W. Bush and Dick Cheney.

Second presidency of Donald Trump

Below are the officials from Trump's second presidency characterized by their support for an aggressive, neoconservative foreign policy, especially in terms of deterring China's rising foreign policy.

Politicians

George W. Bush announces his $74.7 billion wartime supplemental budget request as Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz look on.

Government officials

Bill Kristol orating at Arizona State University in March 2017

Public figures

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Robert Kagan
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David Frum speaking to Policy Exchange in 2013
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Lulu Schwartz
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Ben Shapiro speaking at the 2016 Politicon at the Pasadena Convention Center in Pasadena, California

Institutions

Publications

Defunct publications

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Identity

Critiques

  • Fukuyama, Francis. "After Neoconservatism", The New York Times, 2006.
  • Thompson, Bradley C. (with Yaron Brook). Neoconservatism. An Obituary for an Idea. Boulder/London: Paradigm Publishers, 2010. Template:ISBN.

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