Pauline epistles

The Pauline epistles, also known as Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity. As part of the canon of the New Testament, they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics.

Most scholars believe that Paul actually wrote seven of the thirteen Pauline epistles (Galatians, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philemon, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians), while three of the epistles in Paul's name are widely seen as pseudepigraphic (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus).<ref name="New Testament Letter Structure">New Testament Letter Structure, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.</ref> Whether Paul wrote the three other epistles in his name (2 Thessalonians, Ephesians and Colossians) is widely debated.<ref name="New Testament Letter Structure"/> These latter six epistles are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.<ref name="sand">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The Epistle to the Hebrews, although it does not bear his name, was traditionally considered Pauline (although Rome questioned its authorship), but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content and because the epistle does not indicate that Paul is the author, unlike the others.<ref>The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, publ. Geoffrey Chapman, 1989, chapter 60, at p. 920, col. 2 "That Paul is neither directly nor indirectly the author is now the view of scholars almost without exception. For details, see Kümmel, I[ntroduction to the] N[ew] T[estament, Nashville, 1975] 392–94, 401–03"</ref>

The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the catholic epistles (also called the general epistles) in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts place the general epistles first,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and a few minuscules (175, 325, 336, and 1424) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament.

Authenticity

Beginning of the Greek manuscript by Huldrych Zwingli of the Pauline epistles, written in 1517, preserved in the Zentralbibliothek Zürich

Template:Main In all of these epistles, except the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author and writer does claim to be Paul. The contested letters may have been written using Paul's name, as it was common to attribute at that point in history.<ref>Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [[[:Template:Bibleverse]]] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse-nb) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."</ref>

Template:Location map many Seven letters (with consensus dates)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> considered genuine by most scholars:

• Galatians (c. 48 AD)
• First Thessalonians (c. 49–51)
• First Corinthians (c. 53–54)
• Second Corinthians (c. 55–56)
• Romans (c. 55–57)
• Philippians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
• Philemon (c. 57–59 or c. 62)

The three letters on which scholars are about evenly divided:<ref name="New Testament Letter Structure"/> If these letters are inauthentic, then the consensus dates are probably incorrect.

• Second Thessalonians (c. 51–52)
• Colossians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
• Ephesians (c. 62)

The letters thought to be pseudepigraphic by many scholars (traditional dating given):<ref name="New Testament Letter Structure"/> The content of these letters strongly suggests they were written a decade or more later than the traditional dates.

• First Timothy (c. 62–64)
• Second Timothy (c. 62–65)
• Titus (c. 66–67)

Finally, Epistle to the Hebrews, although anonymous and not really in the form of a letter, has long been included among Paul's collected letters. Although some churches ascribe Hebrews to Paul,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> neither most of Christianity nor modern scholarship does so.<ref name="New Testament Letter Structure"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Paul's use of secretaries

A number of scholars have argued that from biographic details from Paul, he likely suffered from some physical impediment such as vision loss or damaged hands. Paul explicitly states in multiple epistles that he used secretaries, sometimes mentioned by name, a potential explanation for seemingly non-Pauline epistles.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The six disputed epistles are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.<ref name="sand" /> Paul used scribal secretaries and may have had a team of readers, which adds layers to how Paul's letters were composed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Candida Moss has argued that enslaved and formerly enslaved secretaries played a significant but overlooked role in the production of early Christian texts such as the Pauline epistles, urging a broader and more ethical recognition of their contributions to authorship beyond traditional assumptions.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Order

In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:

Name	Addressees	Greek	Latin	Abbreviations
				Full	Min.
Romans	Church at Rome	Πρὸς Ῥωμαίους	Epistola ad Romanos	Rom	Ro
1 Corinthians	Church at Corinth	Πρὸς Κορινθίους Αʹ	Epistola I ad Corinthios	1 Cor	1C
2 Corinthians	Church at Corinth	Πρὸς Κορινθίους Βʹ	Epistola II ad Corinthios	2 Cor	2C
Galatians	Churches in Galatia	Πρὸς Γαλάτας	Epistola ad Galatas	Gal	G
Ephesians	Church at Ephesus	Πρὸς Ἐφεσίους	Epistola ad Ephesios	Eph	E
Philippians	Church at Philippi	Πρὸς Φιλιππησίους	Epistola ad Philippenses	Phil	Phi
Colossians	Church at Colossae	Πρὸς Κολοσσαεῖς	Epistola ad Colossenses	Col	C
1 Thessalonians	Church at Thessalonica	Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς Αʹ	Epistola I ad Thessalonicenses	1 Thess	1Th
2 Thessalonians	Church at Thessalonica	Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς Βʹ	Epistola II ad Thessalonicenses	2 Thess	2Th
1 Timothy	Saint Timothy	Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Αʹ	Epistola I ad Timotheum	1 Tim	1T
2 Timothy	Saint Timothy	Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Βʹ	Epistola II ad Timotheum	2 Tim	2T
Titus	Saint Titus	Πρὸς Τίτον	Epistola ad Titum	Tit	T
Philemon	Saint Philemon	Πρὸς Φιλήμονα	Epistola ad Philemonem	Philem	P
Hebrews*	Hebrew Christians	Πρὸς Ἑβραίους	Epistola ad Hebraeos	Heb	H

This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, but keeping the three pastoral epistles addressed to individuals in a separate final section. The only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians.Template:Sfn

Chronological order of Paul's letters<ref name=":11">Template:Cite book</ref>

Date	Name	Location of authorship
Template:Circa 48	Galatians	Antioch (uncertain)
Template:Circa 49–51	1 Thessalonians	Corinth
Template:Circa 49–51	2 Thessalonians	Corinth
Template:Circa 53–55	1 Corinthians	Ephesus
Template:Circa 55–56	2 Corinthians	Macedonia
Template:Circa 57	Romans	Corinth
Template:Circa 62	Ephesians	Rome
Template:Circa 62	Philippians	Rome
Template:Circa 62	Colossians	Rome
Template:Circa 62	Philemon	Rome
Template:Circa 62–64	1 Timothy	Macedonia
Template:Circa 62–64	Titus	Nicopolis
Template:Circa 64–67	2 Timothy	Rome

In modern editions, the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Paul's letters and before the general epistles. This practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts with hardly any exceptions.Template:Sfn

The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts:

• between Romans and 1 Corinthians (i.e., in order by length without splitting the Epistles to the Corinthians): Papyrus 46 and minuscules 103, 455, 1961, 1964, 1977, 1994.
• between 2 Corinthians and Galatians: minuscules 1930, 1978, and 2248
• between Galatians and Ephesians: implied by the numbering in B. In B, Galatians ends and Ephesians begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1493); similarly 2 Thessalonians ends and Hebrews begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1512).<ref>Digital Vatican Library (DigiVatLib), Manuscript – Vat.gr.1209</ref>
• between 2 Thessalonians and 1 Timothy (i.e., before the Pastorals): א, A, B, C, H, I, P, 0150, 0151, and about 60 minuscules (e.g. 218, 632)
• after Philemon: D, 048, E, K, L and the majority of minuscules.
• omitted: F and G

Lost Pauline epistles

Paul's own writings are sometimes thought to indicate several of his letters that have not been preserved:

• A first, or "zeroth", epistle to Corinth, also called A Prior Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> or Paul's previous Corinthian letter,<ref name=apol>Template:Cite journal</ref> possibly referenced at 1 Corinthians 5:9.<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref>
• A third epistle to Corinth, written in between 1 and 2 Corinthians, also called the Severe Letter, referenced at 2 Corinthians 2:4<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref> and 2 Corinthians 7:8–9<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref>
• An earlier epistle to the Ephesians referenced at Ephesians 3:3–4<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref>
• A possible Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans,<ref name=apol /> referenced at Colossians 4:16<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref>

Pseudepigraphic epistles

Template:See Several other epistles were attributed to Paul during the course of history but are now considered pseudepigraphic:

• Third Epistle to the Corinthians, a correspondence of two letters allegedly sent by the Corinthians to Paul, and then a reply letter allegedly sent by Paul to the Church of Corinth. It was considered genuine for some time by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church, but is now widely dated in the second half of the 2nd century CE.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
• Epistle to the Alexandrians, an alleged epistle written by Paul to the Church of Alexandria. It is mentioned in the Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE), which denounces it as a spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.<ref name="ehrman" />
• Non-Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans versions:
  • The Marcionite Epistle to the Laodiceans. The Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE) denounces a claimed Epistle to the Laodiceans as another spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.<ref name="ehrman" />
  • The Latin Epistle to the Laodiceans. It is found in some old Latin Bible manuscripts, but is widely considered a forgery, and is largely a copy of verses from the Epistle to the Philippians. Theories vary, but it was possibly made as a counterforgery to offset the popularity of the Marcionite epistle.<ref name="ehrman">Template:Cite book</ref>
• Correspondence of Paul and Seneca, a collection of correspondence claiming to be between Paul and Seneca the Younger. They are universally considered a forgery from the 4th century CE.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Collected epistles

David Trobisch finds it likely that Paul first collected his letters for publication himself.<ref name="Trobisch 1994">Template:Cite book</ref> It was normal practice in Paul's time for letter writers to keep one copy for themselves and send a second copy to the recipient(s); surviving collections of ancient letters sometimes originated from the senders' copies, at other times from the recipients' copies.<ref>Reece, Steve. Paul's Large Letters: Pauline Subscriptions in the Light of Ancient Epistolary Conventions. London: T&T Clark, 2016.Template:Page needed</ref> A collection of Paul's letters circulated separately from other early Christian writings and later became part of the New Testament. When the canon was established, the gospels and Paul's letters were the core of what would become the New Testament.Template:RTemplate:Page needed

See also

• Biblical apocrypha
• New Testament athletic metaphors
• New Testament military metaphors

Bibliographic resources

• Aland Kurt. "The Problem of Anonymity and Pseudonymity in Christian Literature of the First Two Centuries." Journal of Theological Studies 12 (1961): 39–49.
• Bahr, Gordon J. "Paul and Letter Writing in the First Century." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 28 (1966): 465–477. idem, "The Subscriptions in the Pauline Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 2 (1968): 27–41.
• Bauckham, Richard J. "Pseudo-Apostolic Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 107 (1988): 469–494.
• Carson, D.A. "Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy." Dictionary of New Testament Background. Eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. 857–864.
• Cousar, Charles B. The Letters of Paul. Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
• Deissmann, G. Adolf. Bible Studies. Trans. Alexander Grieve. 1901. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1988.
• Doty, William G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. New Testament. Ed. Dan O. Via, Jr. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.
• Gamble, Harry Y. "Amanuensis." Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 1. Ed. David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
• Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "'Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing': Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity." Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.4 (1998): 629–646.
• Hart, David Bentley. "The New Testament." New Haven and London: Yale University Press: 2017. 570–574.
• Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011.
• Longenecker, Richard N. "Ancient Amanuenses and the Pauline Epistles." New Dimensions in New Testament Study. Eds. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974. 281–297. idem, "On the Form, Function, and Authority of the New Testament Letters." Scripture and Truth. Eds. D.A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983. 101–114.
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1995.
• Richards, E. Randolph. The Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Tübingen: Mohr, 1991. idem, "The Codex and the Early Collection of Paul's Letters." Bulletin for Bulletin Research 8 (1998): 151–66. idem, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004.
• Robson, E. Iliff. "Composition and Dictation in New Testament Books." Journal of Theological Studies 18 (1917): 288–301.
• Slaten, Arthur Wakefield (1918) "Qualitative nouns in the Pauline epistles and their translation in the revised version". Chicago, Illonis: The University of Chicago Press. Template:OCLC
• Stowers, Stanley K. Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Library of Early Christianity. Vol. 8. Ed. Wayne A. Meeks. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1989.
• Wall, Robert W. "Introduction to Epistolary Literature." New Interpreter's Bible. Vol. 10. Ed. Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2002. 369–391.

External links

• The Marcionite Prologues to the Pauline Epistles
• Chronological Order of Paul's Letters
• Chronology of Paul's Letters Template:Webarchive
• MS 484/13 Epistolae cum glossis at OPenn