President of Syria
Template:Short description Template:For Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox official post
The president of Syria, officially the president of the Syrian Arab Republic, (Template:Langx), is the head of state and head of government of Syria. The president directs the executive branch of the Syrian government and serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces. The president represents the nation in international relations and formalizes treaties with foreign countries.
In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, with Subhi Barakat serving as its president. The federation was short-lived and was replaced by the State of Syria in 1925. Barakat briefly remained president until the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolt later that year, which led to his resignation. He was succeeded by Ahmad Nami, who served as president until his removal in 1928. In the following years, the Syrian presidency underwent several changes in leadership, including a coup by Husni al-Za'im in March 1949, followed by another led by Adib Shishakli in 1951. Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president Gamal Nasser, also became the Syrian president in the same referendum. This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.
The 1963 coup d'état, carried out by the Ba'ath Party, established a one-party state that ruled Ba'athist Syria. Internal power struggles within Ba'athist factions led to further coups in 1966 and 1970, with the latter bringing Hafez al-Assad to power. Under Assad, Syria became a hereditary dictatorship. After his death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him and ruled until his overthrow in 2024. Following Assad’s fall, Ahmed al-Sharaa, the commander of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham and head of the new Syrian administration, assumed the de facto duties of head of state until he was officially appointed president by the Syrian General Command.
After the fall of the Assad regime, a new interim constitution was implemented on 13 March 2025 and remains in effect today. The interim constitution establishes Syria as a presidential system, with executive power vested in the president. It grants the president the authority to establish executive, regulatory, and control measures, and to issue presidential orders and decisions in accordance with the law. The president's official residence is the People's Palace, located in the capital, Damascus. The position is currently held by Ahmed al-Sharaa in a transitional capacity since 29 January 2025.
History
Mandatory Syria
In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, and Subhi Barakat was its president.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="100years">Template:Cite web</ref> The federation system did not last, and was replaced as the State of Syria by 1925. Barakat briefly retained the role of president until the beginning of the Great Syrian Revolt that year caused him to resign.<ref name="100years" /> Ahmad Nami replaced Barakat as president, until he was removed in 1928.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
By 1930, Syrian pressure led the French authorities to promulgate the Syrian Constitution of 1930, establishing the First Syrian Republic. Under the constitution, the president must be a Muslim, and would be elected by a majority of the Syrian parliament.<ref>Constitution of Syria (1930) Part I, Ch. 1, Art. 3; Part II, Ch. 3</ref>
Post-independence
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Following the withdrawal of French troops from Syria in 1946, Syrian officials approved the Syrian Constitution of 1950, which maintained a parliamentary system. As such, the president would be elected by a majority of parliament.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the following years, Syria's presidency experienced several upheavals, including by Husni al-Za'im following his March 1949 coup and later by Adib Shishakli in through the 1951 coup.<ref name="100years" /> During Shishakli's rule, he published the Syrian Constitution of 1953, which established a presidential system with direct elections to the presidency. However, this constitution lasted less than a year, as the reinstated president Hashim al-Atassi returned the country to the 1950 constitution following the 1954 coup only a year later.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president, Gamal Nasser, also became the Syrian president in the same referendum.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)
Following the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, the first decision of the "Revolution Command Council," chaired by Lu'ay al-Atassi, was to suspend the provisional constitution of the United Arab Republic, arrest President Nazim al-Qudsi and Prime Minister Khalid al-Azm, and impose a state of emergency that lasted for 48 years until it was lifted in April 2011.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A new Provisional Constitution was adopted on 25 April 1964, which itself was replaced by the Provisional Constitution of 1 May 1969.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
Under the Assad family (1971–2024)
On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The main objection to the constitution from demonstrators was that Islam was not specified as the state religion.<ref name="nytimes">Template:Cite news</ref> In response to riots, the Syrian Constitution of 1973 was amended to stipulate that Islam was the religion of the president.<ref name="nytimes" /> The constitution has been amended twice. Article 6 was amended in 1981.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref>
After securing his control over the Syrian government, Assad initially chose his brother, Rifaat al-Assad, as his successor, but Rifaat's attempted power grab while Hafez was in a coma in 1984 led to his exile in Europe.<ref name="rnt94">Template:Cite news</ref> Following the incident, Bassel al-Assad was groomed to succeed his father.<ref name="jas7fall">Template:Cite journal</ref> Hafez's efforts to make Bassel the next president of Syria intensified in the early 1990s;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> after Hafez's election victory in 1991 in an election where Hafez was the only candidate, the president was publicly referred to as "Abu Basil" (Father of Bassel).<ref name="cook96dec">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Shortly after Bassel died in a car accident in 1994, Bashar al-Assad was recalled to the Syrian Army. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public image as "the hope of the masses" to prepare the public for a continuation of the rule of the Assad family.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new heir apparent.Template:Sfn
After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the Constitution was amended. The minimum age requirement for the presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar's age at the time.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A 9-member committee was founded, headed by Abdul Halim Khaddam, to oversee the transition period.<ref name="aps19jun">Template:Cite news</ref> He was appointed by this committee as interim President of Syria on 10 June and was in consideration to be Assad's permanent successor, but instead helped Assad's son, Bashar.<ref name="majalla">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The sole candidate of the presidential referendum,<ref name="Reuters %" /> Bashar al-Assad was subsequently confirmed president on 10 July 2000,<ref name="WaPo %" /> with 97.29% support for his leadership.<ref name="CBS %">Klatell, James (27 May 2007). "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum" Template:Webarchive. CBS News.</ref> On 17 July 2000, Assad became president, succeeding his father, Hafez.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party.<ref name="facing down rebellion2">Template:Cite web</ref> The existing personality cult portrays him as the "Young Leader" and the "Hope of the People."<ref name="Pipes1995">Template:Cite book</ref> Drawing influence from North Korea's hereditary leadership model,<ref name="HalasaOmareenMahfoud2014">Template:Cite book</ref> official propaganda in Syria ascribed divine features to the Assad family, and reveres the Assad patriarchs as the founding fathers of modern Syria.<ref name="Shamaileh2017">Template:Cite book</ref>
A new constitution was approved in February 2012 after the start of the Syrian revolution.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A series of state elections were held every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as a sham process and boycotted by the opposition.Template:EfnTemplate:Efn The last two elections – held in 2014 and 2021 – were conducted only in areas controlled by the Syrian government during the country's ongoing civil war and condemned by the United Nations.<ref name="theguardian.com">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="telegraph.co.uk">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name="Kossaify">Template:Cite news</ref>
The 2012 constitution ceased to be in effect after the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024 and was officially phased out on 29 January 2025.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=":3">Template:Cite web</ref>
Post-Ba'athist Syria (2024–present)
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After the fall of the Assad regime, the position became vacant on 8 December 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The duties of the head of state were carried out by the caretaker government, with Ahmed al-Sharaa serving as the de facto leader.<ref name="defactoleader">Template:Cite web</ref> On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference in Damascus, the Syrian General Command officially appointed al-Sharaa as the president for the transitional period.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As president, al-Sharaa announced plans to issue a "constitutional declaration" as a legal reference following the repeal of the 2012 constitution of Ba'athist Syria.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite web</ref>
On 2 March, al-Sharaa declared the establishment of a committee tasked with drafting a constitutional declaration to guide the country's transition following the ousting of the Assad regime.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 13 March, al-Sharaa signed an interim constitution for a transitional period of five years, enshrining Islamic law as a primary source of jurisprudence and promising to protect the rights of all Syria's ethnic and religious groups.<ref name=":0322">Template:Cite web</ref> The Interim Constitution sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> without the position of prime minister.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
On 29 March, the Syrian transitional government was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the People's Palace in Damascus,<ref name=":022">Template:Cite web</ref> in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The government replaced the caretaker government, which was formed following the fall of the Assad regime.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
General Secretariat of the Presidency
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The General Secretariat was established by a decree issued by President Bashar al-Assad on 13 December 2023, as part of a broader restructuring of the Syrian presidency.<ref name="sana2023">Template:Cite web</ref> This reform dissolved the Ministry of Presidential Affairs and transferred all its staff and responsibilities to the new secretariat, which reports directly to the president rather than operating as a separate ministry.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The Secretary-General to the President is considered one of the highest-ranking positions in the Syrian state under the Presidency of the Syrian Arab Republic.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The office supervises the presidential staff and represents the President at official events.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Secretary-General is responsible for managing the administrative and organizational affairs of the Presidency, overseeing the President’s schedule, organizing official meetings and visits, and coordinating with government institutions to implement presidential directives.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The current Secretary-General is Maher al-Sharaa.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Following the fall of the Assad government on 8 December 2024 and the establishment of a transitional administration under President Ahmed al-Sharaa, the General Secretariat continued its operations. The position of Assistant Secretary-General gained prominence in 2025, particularly with the appointment of Ali Keda on 26 May 2025. His role focused on Cabinet Affairs amid efforts to stabilize the new government and coordinate policy implementation across ministries.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Powers and roles
Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)
The 1973 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria made the president head of state, chief executive, and commander-in-chief.<ref name="Rob897">Robbers, 2007, p.897</ref> Candidates were nominated by the Ba'ath Party, approved by parliament, and confirmed by referendum for a renewable seven-year term.<ref name="Rob896">Robbers, 2007, p.896.</ref> The president held extensive powers, including appointing and dismissing ministers, senior officials, and judges, as well as dissolving parliament and appointing vice presidents.<ref name="Rob896" /> The 2012 Constitution expanded these powers further,<ref name="2254p7">Template:Cite book</ref> granting the president broad control over the executive, legislature, and judiciary.<ref name="syrconst">Template:Cite web</ref> It remained in force until the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 and was replaced by the 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria on 13 March 2025.<ref name="Szmolk 2017 132–133">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
Post-Ba'athist Syria (2025–present)
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Under the 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces and is responsible for:<ref name="newinterimconstition">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Managing national governance
- Preserving territorial integrity and security
- Protecting the interests of the people
The president has the authority to:<ref name="newinterimconstition" />
- Appoint, remove, and accept the resignations of ministers
- Establish executive, regulatory, and control measures, as well as issue presidential orders and decisions following the law
- Act as the state's representative in international relations and formalize treaties with foreign nations and international organizations
- Declare general mobilization and war with the approval of the National Security Council
- Grant special pardons and restore honor
- Appoint and dismiss heads of diplomatic missions abroad and receive the credentials of foreign diplomatic representatives in Syria
- Propose laws, issue laws approved by the People's Assembly, and veto laws within one month of receipt. If the People's Assembly passes a veto law with a two-thirds majority, the president is required to enact it by decree.
In the event of a severe threat to national unity, sovereignty, or the proper functioning of state institutions, the president may:<ref name="newinterimconstition" />
- Impose a state of emergency, either fully or partially, for up to three months, after:
- Securing approval from the National Security Council
- Consulting with the speaker of the People's Assembly and the president of the Constitutional Court
- Extend the state of emergency only with the approval of the People's Assembly
Selection process
Election
A presidential election in Syria is planned to take place within five years of the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024.<ref name="reuters">Template:Cite news</ref> Until then, Syria will be governed by a transitional government led by Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The last Syrian presidential election in Ba'athist Syria was held in 2021, before its overthrow during the 2024 Syrian opposition offensive.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Religion
Article 3 of the Interim Constitution states, "The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.<ref name="newinterimconstition" />
Inauguration
The Interim Constitution provides the following oath or affirmation for the president, which must be taken before the People's Assembly.<ref name="newinterimconstition" /> Template:Blockquote
Official residence
The People's Palace is the official residence of the President of Syria. It is located in the western part of Damascus, on Mount Mezzeh, just north of the Mezzeh neighborhood and next to Mount Qasioun, overlooking the city. The entire plateau of Mount Mezzeh is part of the palace compound, which is surrounded by a security wall and guard watchtowers. In front of the building is a large fountain, and the palace itself mostly consists of empty rooms clad in Carrara marble.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Syrian caretaker government later started using the palace for diplomatic events.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Before the construction of the new People's Palace on Mount Mezzeh in the early 1990s, Tishreen Palace served as the primary residence of the Assad family.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 8 December 2024, during the fall of the Assad regime, anti-Assad forces took control of the palace.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After the regime fell, Syrians ransacked and looted the palace, inviting much of the public.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Succession
Article 34 of the Interim Constitution states, "In the event of a vacancy in the presidency, the Vice President shall assume the powers of the President of the Republic.".<ref name="newinterimconstition" />
List of presidents
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See also
Explanatory notes
References
Sources
External links
Template:Presidents of Syria Template:Heads of state and government of Asia Template:Syria topics