Saltwater crocodile
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The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats, brackish wetlands and freshwater rivers from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaland to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 1996.<ref name=iucn /> It was hunted for its skin throughout its range up to the 1970s, and is threatened by illegal killing and habitat loss. It is regarded as dangerous to humans.<ref name=Webb_al2010>Template:Cite book</ref>
The saltwater crocodile is the largest living reptile.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Males can grow up to a weight of Template:Cvt and a length of Template:Cvt, rarely exceeding Template:Cvt.<ref name="Acid">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Females are much smaller and rarely surpass Template:Cvt.<ref name=Whitaker_2008>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Britton et al. 2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is also called the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile, and, informally, the saltie.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator, they ambush most of their prey and then drown or swallow it whole. They will prey on almost any animal that enters their territory, including other predators such as sharks, varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species, invertebrates such as crustaceans, various amphibians, other reptiles, birds, and mammals.<ref name="Callaway, J. M. 1997">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Blaber, S. J. 2008">Template:Cite book</ref>
Taxonomy and evolution
Crocodilus porosus was the scientific name proposed by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider who described a zoological specimen in 1801.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries, several saltwater crocodile specimens were described with the following names:
- Crocodilus biporcatus proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1807 were 23 saltwater crocodile specimens from India, Java and Timor.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Crocodilus biporcatus raninus proposed by Salomon Müller and Hermann Schlegel in 1844 was a crocodile from Borneo.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Crocodylus porosus australis proposed by Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953 was a specimen from Australia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Crocodylus pethericki proposed by Richard Wells and C. Ross Wellington in 1985 was a large-bodied, relatively large-headed and short-tailed crocodile specimen collected in 1979 in the Finnis River, Northern Territory.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This purported species was later considered to be a misinterpretation of the physiological changes that very large male crocodiles undergo. However, Wells and Wellington's assertion that the Australian saltwater crocodiles may be distinctive enough from Asian saltwater crocodiles to warrant subspecies status has been considered to possibly bear validity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Currently, the saltwater crocodile is considered a monotypic species.<ref name= Brazaitis>Template:Cite book</ref>
Evolution
Fossil remains of a saltwater crocodile excavated in northern Queensland were dated to the Pliocene.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The saltwater crocodile's closest extant (living) relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the mugger crocodile.<ref name=Gatesy2008>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Srikulnath2015>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=LeeYates2018>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Hekkala2021>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The genus Crocodylus was thought to have evolved in Australia and Asia.<ref name=Oaks2011>Template:Cite journal</ref> Results of a phylogenetic study supports its likely origin in Africa and later radiation towards Southeast Asia and the Americas; it genetically diverged from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar, around Template:Mya near the boundary between the Oligocene and Miocene.<ref name=Hekkala2021/>
Phylogeny
Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological, molecular (DNA sequencing), and stratigraphic (fossil age) data,<ref name="LeeYates2018"/> as revised in 2021 after a paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct Voay.<ref name=Hekkala2021/> Hall's New Guinea crocodile placement suggested in 2023 study by Sales-Oliveira et al.<ref name="Sales-Oliveira2023">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Clade
Description
The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However, it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile (C. palustris); its length is twice its width at the base.<ref name="Guggisberg">Template:Cite book</ref> A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent. In addition, an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields, and small, triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large, transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield. The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading, as well as in the few areas in the field where sub-adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles. It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator.<ref name="ufl"/>
Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Size
The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases (see square–cube law).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This explains why individuals at Template:Cvt weigh more than twice as much as individuals at Template:Cvt.<ref name="ufl">Template:Cite web</ref> In crocodiles, linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world. However, they start life fairly small. Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about Template:Cvt long and weigh an average of Template:Cvt.<ref name="NewHolland">Template:Cite web</ref> These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles, despite the fact that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Bourquin>Template:Cite thesis</ref>
The largest skull of a saltwater crocodile that could be scientifically verified was of a specimen in the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, collected in Cambodia. Its skull was Template:Cvt long and Template:Cvt wide near its base, with Template:Cvt long mandibles; its length is not known, but based on skull-to-length ratios of large saltwater crocodiles its length was presumably in the Template:Cvt range, though it could have had an exceptionally large skull or may not have the same skull-to-total-length ratios as other large saltwater crocodiles.<ref name=Whitaker_2008/><ref name=Greer1974>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Britton et al. 2012"/> If detached from the body, the head of a large male crocodile can weigh over Template:Cvt, including the large muscles and tendons at the base of the skull that lend the crocodile its massive biting strength.<ref name=Wood>Template:Cite book</ref> The largest tooth measured Template:Cvt in length.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other crocodilians like the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) have a proportionately longer skull, but both their skulls and their bodies are less massive than in the saltwater crocodile.<ref name=Whitaker_2008/>
Male size
An adult male saltwater crocodile, from young adults to older individuals, typically ranges Template:Cvt in length and weighs Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name= Webb>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= Webb2>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> On average, adult males range Template:Cvt in length and weigh Template:Cvt.<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="taylorfrancis.com">Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref> However average size largely depends on the location, habitat, and human interactions and thus varies from one study to another. In 1993, in a study conducted (published in 1998), eleven saltwater crocodiles were found to have measured Template:Cvt and weighed between Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Very large, aged males can exceed Template:Cvt in length and presumably weigh up to Template:Cvt.<ref name="ufl"/><ref name=Whitaker_2008/><ref name=Greer1974/><ref name="taylorfrancis.com"/>
The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record drowned in a fishing net in Papua New Guinea, in 1979. Its dried skin plus head measured Template:Cvt in length and it was estimated to have been Template:Cvt when accounting for shrinkage and a missing tail tip.<ref name="Britton et al. 2012" /><ref name="Whitaker_2008" /> Projected from their skull lengths, multiple specimens from Singapore were estimated to belong in life to male crocodiles measuring more than Template:Cvt.<ref>Fukuda, Y., How, C. B., Seah, B., Yang, S., Pocklington, K., & Peng, L. K. (2018). Historical, exceptionally large skulls of saltwater crocodiles discovered at the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum in Singapore. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 66, 810–813.</ref> A large Vietnamese saltwater crocodile was reliably estimated, based on its skull after its death, at Template:Cvt.<ref>Ziegler, T., Tao, N. T., Minh, N. T., Manalo, R., Diesmos, A., & Manolis, C. (2019). A giant crocodile skull from Can Tho, named "Dau Sau", represents the largest known saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) ever reported from Vietnam. Tap chi Sinh hoc (Journal of Biology), 41(4), 25–30.</ref> However, according to evidence in the form of skulls coming from some of the largest crocodiles ever shot, the maximum possible size attained by the largest members of this species is considered to be Template:Cvt.<ref name="Britton et al. 2012" /><ref name="ufl" /> A governmental study from Australia accepts that the very largest members of the species are likely to measure Template:Cvt in length and weigh Template:Cvt.<ref name="Leach" /> Furthermore, a research paper on the morphology and physiology of crocodilians by the same organisation estimates that saltwater crocodiles reaching sizes of Template:Cvt would weigh around Template:Cvt.<ref name="EnvironmentAU">Template:Cite web</ref> Due to the extreme size and highly aggressive nature of the species, weight in larger specimens is frequently poorly documented. A Template:Convert long individual named "Sweetheart" was found to have weighed Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Another large crocodile named "Gomek", measuring Template:Cvt in length weighed around Template:Cvt. In 1992, a notorious man-eater, named "Bujang Senang" was killed in Sarawak, Malaysia. It measured Template:Cvt in length and weighed more than Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A saltwater–siamese hybrid named "Yai" (Template:Langx, meaning big; born 10 June 1972) at the Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Thailand was claimed to be the largest crocodile ever held in captivity. It measured Template:Cvt in length and weighed approximately Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1962, a large male saltwater crocodile was shot in Adelaide River, Northern Territory. It was recorded to be Template:Cvt long and weighed Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A large male in the Philippines, named Lolong, was one of the largest saltwater crocodile ever caught and placed in captivity. He was Template:Cvt long and weighed Template:Cvt.<ref name="Britton et al. 2012" /><ref name="Manalo">Manalo, R. I., & Alcala, A. C. (2013). Status of the crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) industry in the Philippines. Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology of the Philippines, 35(1), 219–222.</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Following his death in 2013, the largest living crocodile in captivity was "Cassius", who was kept at Marineland Crocodile Park, a zoo located at Green Island, Queensland, Australia. He measured 5.48 m (18 ft 0 in) in length and weighed approximately 1,300 kg (2,870 lb) before his death in November 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Female size
Adult females typically measure from Template:Cvt in total length and weigh Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name= Campbell>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Large mature females reach Template:Cvt and weigh up to Template:Cvt.<ref>McDonald, K. R., Dennis, A. J., Kyne, P. J., Debus, S. J., & Curtis, L. (2012). Queensland's Threatened Animals. CSIRO Publishing, pg. 185–186.</ref> The largest female on record measured about Template:Cvt in total length.<ref name="Wood" /> Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species, like the Nile crocodile.<ref name= Bourquin/> The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism, by far, of any extant crocodilian, as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length. The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex-specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Cox, R. M., Butler, M. A., & John-Alder, H. B. (2007). The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in reptiles. Sex, size and gender roles: evolutionary studies of sexual size dimorphism, 38–49.</ref> Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest-sized dimorphism of other species, the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at Template:Cvt.<ref name="Brazaitis" /><ref name="Guggisberg" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Reported sizes
| Date | Location | Reported Length | Reported Weight | Reported Girth | Reported Skull Length | Scientifically Analyzed Length | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1840 | Bay of Bengal | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Skull saved, but was later shown to be measured incorrectly by calculating from snout to posterior edge of lower jaw, per GA Greer. Actual skull length was 655mm.<ref name="Catalogue of the chelonians, rhynchocephalians, and crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History)">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Greer1974/> |
| 1823 | Luzon, Philippines | Template:Cvt | Not listed | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Template:Cvt | Skull preserved and measured by Thomas Barbour, who determined original length was taken along the curve of the belly.<ref name="Twenty Years in the Philippines [1819-1839]">Template:Cite book</ref> |
| July 1957 | Carpenteria, Australia | Template:Cvt | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Killed by Krystyna Pawlowski while defending her three-year-old daughterTemplate:Citation needed |
| 1926–1932 | North Borneo | Template:Cvt | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Sighted by James R Montgomery sleeping on a river bank and was considered a legend by the Seluke people said to be over 200 years old.<ref name="Guinness Book of World Records Animal Facts and Feats">Template:Cite book</ref> |
Distribution and habitat
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The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps, river deltas and freshwater rivers from India's east coast, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to Myanmar, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, Timor Leste, Palau, Solomon Islands, Singapore, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Australia's north coast.<ref name=iucn/><ref name=Webb_al2010/> The southernmost population in India lives in Odisha's Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary; in northern Odisha, it has not been recorded since the 1930s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It occurs along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands coasts and in the Sundarbans.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= Kumar>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Sri Lanka, it occurs foremost in western and southern parts of the country.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In Myanmar, it inhabits the Ayeyarwady Delta.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In southern Thailand, it was recorded in Phang Nga Province.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Singapore, it inhabits the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve and marshes near Kranji and Mandai.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is locally extinct in Cambodia, China, Seychelles, Thailand and Vietnam.<ref name=Webb_al2010/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In China, it may have once inhabited coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> References to crocodile attacks on humans and livestock during the Han and Song dynasties indicate that until the 18th century, it may have occurred in lower Pearl River and Macau, Han River, Min River, portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island.<ref name=Guggisberg/>
Three historical records of saltwater crocodiles being found in Japanese coastal waters exist; an individual was found off the coast of Iwo Jima in 1744, another was found off Amami Ōshima in 1800, and finally, a third individual was caught by fishermen in Toyama Bay in 1932. All other occurrences of the species being present within Japanese territory are from World War II, and were found in areas that were formerly controlled by the Empire of Japan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In Malaysia, it was recorded in Klias, Segama and Kinabatangan Rivers in Sabah.<ref name="Stuebing, R. B. 1994">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Sarawak, it was recorded by a camera trap in Kuching Wetlands National Park.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the Lesser Sunda Islands, it is present along the coasts of Sumba, Lembata Island, Flores, Menipo, Rote Island, and Timor. Its status along Alor Island is unknown, where one individual was captured in the 2010s.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the Maluku Islands, it is present around the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands, and many other islands in the region, including the Torres Strait Islands. In Papua New Guinea, it is common within the coastal reaches of every river system, such as the Fly River and in the Bismarck Archipelago.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the Philippines, it occurs in a few coastal sites like eastern Luzon, Palawan, the Liguasan Marsh, and Agusan River on Mindanao.<ref name=Webb_al2010/>
In northern Australia, the saltwater crocodile is thriving, particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin such as the Adelaide, Mary, and Daly Rivers, along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 adults. Its range extends from Broome, Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Gladstone, Queensland.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Because of its ability to swim long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range, up to Fiji.<ref name=Campbell_al2010>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season. Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory, with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams. Junior crocodiles are thus forced into marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean. This explains the large distribution of the species, as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion such as the Sea of Japan. Like all crocodiles, they can survive for prolonged periods in only warm temperatures, and crocodiles seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit.<ref name=Ross>Template:Cite book</ref>
Behaviour and ecology
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The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait that alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances. In Australia, 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters; 8 of them ventured out into open ocean, and one of them traveled Template:Cvt along the coast in 25 days from the North Kennedy River on the eastern coast of Far North Queensland, around Cape York Peninsula, to the west coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Another individual swam Template:Cvt in 20 days. Without having to move around much, sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy. They interrupted their movements and resided in sheltered bays for a few days until the current changed direction. Sometimes, they also swam up and down river systems.<ref name=Campbell_al2010/> Generally very lethargic, a trait that helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day, preferring to hunt at night. A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer; conversely, they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water. They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spending less time on land except for basking. At times, they tend to spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases, barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative of the long periods they spend at sea.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Saltwater crocodiles are able to stay fully submerged underwater for long periods of time. To extend an aerobic dive, they can reduce their heart rate and oxygen consumption. Voluntary dives for up to two hours have been reported and even much longer dives considered to be possible for large individuals when their metabolic rate is reduced. Diving depth of C. porosus is poorly studied, but they have been recorded at depths of Template:Cvt and can probably go much deeper.<ref name=Grigg_2015>Template:Cite book</ref>
While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals (as low as 0.05% of body weight in the saltwater crocodile), saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning, learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change, and may possess a deeper communication ability than currently accepted.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> While Saltwater crocodiles are the least social and most aggressive crocodilians, it still showed varies interspecific variations of gregariousness. Their social systems are dynamic, influenced by the time of year, as well as the sex and maturity of the individuals. Individuals have been known to maintain specific associations for up to five years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Hunting and diet
Like most species in the crocodilian family, saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food, and readily vary their prey selection according to availability. Nor are they voracious, as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period. Because of their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian.<ref name=Ross/> The diet of hatchling, juvenile, and subadult saltwater crocodiles has been subject to extensively greater scientific study than that of fully-grown crocodiles, in large part due to the aggression, territoriality, and size of adults that make them difficult for biologists to handle without significant risk to safety, for both humans and the crocodiles themselves. The main method used for capturing adult saltwater crocodiles is a huge pole with large hooks, meant for shark capture, that restrict the crocodile's jaws, but these can cause damage to their snouts; and even this is unproven to allow successful capture for crocodiles in excess of Template:Cvt. While for example 20th century biological studies rigorously cataloged the stomach contents of "sacrificed" adult Nile crocodiles in Africa,<ref name=Cott>Template:Cite journal</ref> few such studies were done on behalf of saltwater crocodiles despite the plethora that were slaughtered due to the leather trade during that time period. Therefore, the diet of adults is more likely to be based on reliable eye-witness accounts.<ref name="Webb, G. J. 1991">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name= Davenport>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals, such as small fish, frogs, insects and small aquatic invertebrates.<ref name=Davenport/> In addition to these prey, juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, various amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, such as large gastropods and cephalopods, birds, small to medium-sized mammals, and other reptiles, such as snakes and lizards. When crocodiles obtain a length of more than Template:Cvt, the significance of small invertebrate prey fades in favour of small vertebrates, including fish and smaller mammals and birds.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Among crustacean prey, large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed, especially in mangrove habitats. Ground-living birds, such as the emu and different kinds of water birds, especially the magpie goose, are the most commonly preyed upon birds, due to the increased chance of encounter.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=Messel>Template:Cite book</ref> Even swift-flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water,<ref name="Ross"/> as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food, even down to the size of a common sandpiper.<ref name=NewHolland/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates, such as the greater mouse-deer (Tragulus napu) and hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Prey species recorded include primate species such as crab-eating macaques,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> proboscis monkeys,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and gibbons. It preys on agile wallabies,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> golden jackals, viverrids, turtles, flying foxes, hares, rodents, badgers, otters, chevrotains and pangolins.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Corlett>Template:Cite journal</ref> A rare incidence of an adult Template:Cvt long saltwater crocodile preying on an Indian porcupine was reported in Sri Lanka.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Unlike fish, crabs and aquatic creatures, mammals and birds are usually found only sporadically in or next to water; so crocodiles seem to search for places where such prey may be concentrated, e.g. the water under a tree holding a flying fox colony, or spots where herds of water buffaloes feed, in order to capture small animals disturbed by the buffalo or (if a large adult crocodile is hunting) weaker members of the buffalo herd.<ref name=Messel/>
Studies have shown that, unlike freshwater crocodiles (which can easily die from eating poisonous toads), saltwater crocodiles are partially resistant to cane toad toxins and can consume them, but in only small quantities and not enough to provide effective natural control for this virulent introduced pest.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Large crocodiles, even the oldest males, do not ignore small species, especially those without developed escape abilities, when the opportunity arises. On the other hand, sub-adult saltwater crocodiles weighing only Template:Cvt (and measuring Template:Cvt) have been recorded killing and eating goats weighing 50 to 92% of their own body mass in Orissa, India, and so are capable of attacking large prey from an early age.<ref name= Corlett/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It was found that the diet of specimens in juvenile to subadult range, since they feed on any animals up to their own size practically no matter how small, was more diverse than that of adults, which often ignored all prey below a certain size limit.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Large animals taken by adult saltwater crocodiles include sambar deer, wild boar, Malayan tapirs, kangaroos, feral pigs,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> humans, orangutans, dingos, tigers,<ref name="FAO2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> and large bovines, such as banteng,<ref name=Leach/> water buffalo, and gaur.<ref name=Kumar/><ref name=Collins>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, larger animals are taken only sporadically because only large males typically attack very large prey, and large ungulates and other sizeable wild mammals are only sparsely distributed in this species' range, outside of a few key areas such as the Sundarbans.<ref name=Ross/> Off-setting this, goats, water buffalo and wild boar/pigs have been introduced to many of the areas occupied by saltwater crocodiles and returned to feral states to varying degrees, and thus can amply support large crocodiles.<ref name=Guggisberg/> In Australia, the saltwater crocodile's taste for feral pigs and buffalo was a key factor in their recovery for hunting pressures over the last fifty years according to studies published in 2022 by Dr. Marianna Campbell et al.,. Isotopes taken from the bones of crocodiles collected over five decades ago when crocodiles populations were low and comparisons to specimens from modern populations suggest that initially, Australian saltwater crocodiles subsisted on a more estuarine diet, and both hunting pressures by humans and a reduction in aquatic prey in places like the Top End resulted in a dietary switch to more terrestrial prey that allowed them to grow and recover more rapidly from population declines.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Any type of livestock, such as chicken, sheep, pigs, horses and cattle, and domesticated animals/pets may be eaten if given the opportunity.<ref name=Ross/> As a seagoing species, the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals, including sea snakes, sea turtles, sea birds, dugongs, rays (including large sawfish<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>), and small sharks. Most witnessed acts of predation on marine animals have occurred in coastal waters or within sight of land, with female sea turtles and their babies caught during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore, and bull sharks being the only largish shark with a strong propensity to patrol brackish and fresh waters.<ref name=Ross/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, there is evidence that saltwater crocodiles do hunt while out in the open seas, based upon the remains of pelagic fishes that dwell only miles away from land being found in their stomachs.<ref name="Callaway, J. M. 1997"/><ref name="Blaber, S. J. 2008"/>
The hunting methods utilised by saltwater crocodiles are indistinct from any other crocodilian, with the hunting crocodile submerging and quietly swimming over to the prey before pouncing upwards, striking suddenly. Unlike some other crocodilians, such as American alligators and even Nile crocodiles, they are not known to have hunted on dry land.<ref name="Ross"/><ref name=Guggisberg/> Young saltwater crocodiles are capable of breaching their entire body into the air in a single upward motion while hunting prey that may be perched on low hanging branches.<ref name=Davenport/> While hunting rhesus macaques, they have been seen to knock the monkeys off a bank by knocking them with their tail, forcing the macaque into water for easy consumption. However, whether tail use in hunting is intentional or just an accidental benefit is not definitely clear.<ref name=Guggisberg/> As with other crocodilians, their sharp, peg-like teeth are well-suited to seize and tightly grip prey, but not to shear flesh. Small prey are simply swallowed whole, while larger animals are dragged into deep water and drowned or crushed.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com">Template:Cite web</ref> Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by "death rolling", the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat or by sudden jerks of the head.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Occasionally, food items will be stored for later consumption once a crocodile eats its fill, although this can lead to scavenging by interlopers such as monitor lizards.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Bite
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Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any living animal. A Template:Cvt Template:Cvt saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force quotient ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting, with a value of Template:Cvt surpassing the previous record of Template:Cvt made by an American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="erickson">Template:Cite journal</ref> Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force, the bite forces of multiple crocodile species, Template:Cvt individuals were estimated at Template:Cvt.<ref name="erickson"/> The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff, almost as hard as bone to the touch, such that it can appear to be a continuation of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Reproduction
Males reach sexual maturity around Template:Cvt at around 16 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at Template:Cvt and 12–14 years of age.<ref name="Britton et al. 2012"/> Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, when water levels are at their highest. In Australia, the male and female engage in courtship in September and October, and the female lays eggs between November and March.<ref name=Leach/> It is possible the rising temperatures of the wet season provoke reproductive behaviour in this species.<ref name=Messel/> While crocodilians generally nest every year, there have been several recorded cases of female saltwater crocodiles nesting only every other year and also records of a female attempting to produce two broods in a single wet season.<ref name=Messel/> The female selects the nesting site, and both parents will defend the nesting territory, which is typically a stretch of shore along tidal rivers or freshwater areas, especially swamps. Nests are often in a surprisingly exposed location, often in mud with little to no vegetation around, and thus limited protection from the sun and wind. The nest is a mound of mud and vegetation, usually measuring Template:Cvt long and Template:Cvt high, with an entrance averaging Template:Cvt in diameter.<ref name=Messel/> Some nests in unlikely habitats have occurred, such as rocky rubble or in a damp low-grass field.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The female crocodile usually scratches a layer of leaves and other debris around the nest entrance and this covering is reported to produce an "astonishing" amount of warmth for the eggs (coincidentally these nesting habits are similar to those of the birds known as megapodes that nest in upland areas of the same Australasian regions where saltwater crocodiles are found).<ref name=Guggisberg/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The female typically lays from 40 to 60 eggs, but some clutches have included up to 90. The eggs measure on average Template:Cvt and weigh Template:Cvt on average in Australia and Template:Cvt in India.<ref name=Leach/><ref name=Gopi/> These are relatively small, as the average female saltwater crocodile weighs around five times as much as a freshwater crocodile, but lays eggs that are only about 20% larger in measurement and 40% heavier than those of the smaller species.<ref name=NewHolland/> The average weight of a new hatchling in Australia is reportedly Template:Cvt.<ref name=Leach/> Although the female guards the nest for 80 to 98 days (in extreme high and low cases from 75 to 106 days), the loss of eggs is often high due to flooding and occasionally to predation.<ref name=Leach/> As in all crocodilians, the sex of the hatchlings is determined by temperature. At 28–30 degrees all hatchlings will be female, at 30–32 degrees 86% of hatchlings are male, and at 33 or more degrees predominantly female (84%).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Australia, goannas (Varanus giganteus) commonly eat freshwater crocodile eggs (feeding on up to 95% of the clutch if discovered), but are relatively unlikely to eat saltwater crocodile eggs due to the vigilance of the imposing mother, with about 25% of the eggs being lost to goannas (less than half as many Nile crocodile eggs are estimated to be eaten by monitors in Africa).<ref name=NewHolland/> A majority of the loss of eggs of saltwater crocodiles occurs due to flooding of the nest hole.<ref name=Messel/><ref name=Magnusson>Template:Cite journal</ref>
As in most crocodilian species, the female saltwater crocodile exhibits a remarkable level of maternal care for a reptile. She excavates the nest in response to "yelping" calls from the hatchlings, and even gently rolls eggs in her mouth to assist hatching. The female will then carry the hatchlings to water in her mouth (as Nile crocodile and American alligator females have been observed doing when their eggs hatch) and remains with the young for several months. Despite her diligence, losses of baby crocodiles are heavy due to various predators and unrelated crocodiles of their own species. Only approximately 1% of the hatchlings will survive to adulthood.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> By crocodilian standards, saltwater crocodile hatchlings are exceptionally aggressive to one another and will often fight almost immediately after being transported to water by their mother.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The young naturally start to disperse after around 8 months, and start to exhibit territorial behaviour at around 2.5 years old. They are the most territorial of extant crocodilians and, due to their aggressiveness to conspecifics, from the dispersed immature stage on, they are never seen in concentrations or loose groups as are most other crocodilians.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, even females will not reach proper sexual maturity for another 10 years. Saltwater crocodiles that survive to adulthood can attain a very long maximum life span, with an estimated life expectancy upwards of 70 years, and some individuals possibly exceed 100 years, although no such extreme ages have been verified for any crocodilian.<ref name="Britton et al. 2012"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
While adults have no natural predators, baby saltwater crocodiles may fall prey to monitor lizards (occasionally, but not commonly, the numerous goanna in Australia, and the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) further north), predatory fish (especially the barramundi (Lates calcarifer)), wild boars, rats, various aquatic and raptorial birds (e.g. black-necked storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) and white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster)), pythons, larger crocodiles, and many other predators.<ref name=Messel/><ref name=Leach>Template:Cite report</ref><ref name=Gopi>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Magnusson/> Pigs and cattle also occasionally inadvertently trample eggs and nests on occasion and degrade habitat quality where found in numbers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Juveniles may also fall prey to tigers and leopards (Panthera pardus) in certain parts of their range, although encounters between these predators are rare, and cats are likely to avoid areas with saltwater crocodiles.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Saltwater crocodiles go through numerous physiological changes as they mature. Pictured here is a hatchling age or baby crocodile.
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Seen here is a juvenile crocodile, which grows considerably in length over several years but is easily distinguished by slender build and size.
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A saltwater crocodile in the subadult age range at Gembira Loka Zoo, similar but not as robust and relatively small-headed compared to adults.
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Juvenile salt water crocodiles at Karamjal Wildlife Breeding center, Bangladesh
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Conservation status
The species is considered of minimal concern for extinction but is protected from the effects of international trade under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) as follows:
- Appendix I (prohibiting all commercial trade in the species or its parts/derivatives): All wild populations except for those of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea;
- Appendix II (commercial trade allowed with export permit; import permits may or may not be required depending on the laws of the importing country): Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea wild populations, plus all worldwide populations bred in captivity for commercial purposes.
The saltwater crocodile was often hunted for its meat and eggs, and its skin is the most commercially valuable of any crocodilian. Unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range, with the population in northern Australia reduced by 95% by 1971. The years from 1940 to 1970 were the peak of unregulated hunting and may have regionally caused irreparable damage to saltwater crocodile populations.<ref name= Whitaker2>Template:Cite book</ref> The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found – Western Australia (since 1970), Northern Territory (since 1971) and Queensland (since 1974).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Illegal hunting still persists in some areas, with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective, and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range. However, many areas have not recovered; some population surveys have shown that although young crocodiles are present, fewer than 10% of specimens spotted are in adult size range and do not include any particularly large males, such as Sri Lanka or Palau. This is indicative of both potential continued persecution and exploitation and a non-recovered breeding population.<ref>Gramantez, D. (2008) A case study of the Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Muthurajawela Marsh, Sri Lanka – Considerations for conservation. IUCN- Crocodile Specialist Group.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In a more balanced population, such as those from Bhitarkanika National Park or Sabah on Borneo, 28% and 24.2% of specimens observed were in the adult size range of more than Template:Convert.<ref name="Stuebing, R. B. 1994"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Habitat loss continues to be a major problem for the species. In northern Australia, much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo, although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably. Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain, subtle habitat alterations can be a problem, such as in the Andaman Islands, where freshwater areas, used for nesting, are being increasingly converted to human agriculture. After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned, perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can pose to humans, and the resulting negative view of the crocodile.<ref name="autogenerated1">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Relationship with humans
Attacks on humans
Template:See also Of all the crocodilians, the saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile have the strongest tendency to becoming man-eating animals.<ref name=SideleauBritton2012/> The saltwater crocodile has a long history of attacking humans who venture into its territory. As a result of its power, intimidating size and speed, survival of a predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make direct contact. The only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to completely avoid their habitat whenever possible, as they are exceedingly aggressive when encroached upon.<ref name=Guggisberg/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Exact data on attacks are limited outside Australia, where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year.<ref name="Caldicott et al. 2005">Template:Cite journal</ref> From 1971 to 2013, the total number of fatalities reported in Australia due to saltwater crocodile attack was 106.<ref>Manolis, S. C., & Webb, G. J. (September 2013). "Assessment of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) attacks in Australia (1971–2013): implications for management", pp. 97–104 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.</ref><ref name="Caldicott et al. 2005"/> The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at numerous at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Sumatra,<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Eastern India (Andaman Islands),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Burma.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In Sarawak, Borneo, the average number of fatal attacks is reportedly 2.8 annually for the years from 2000 to 2003.<ref name= AttackResearch/> In the Northern Territory in Australia, attempts have been made to relocate saltwater crocodiles who have displayed aggressive behaviour towards humans but these have proven ineffective as the problem crocodiles are apparently able to find their way back to their original territories.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the Darwin area from 2007 to 2009, 67–78% of "problem crocodiles" were identified as males.<ref>Delaney, R., Fukuda, Y., & Saalfeld, K. (2009). SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus) MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. Northern Territory Government, Department of Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport.</ref>
Many attacks in areas outside Australia are believed to go unreported, with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year.<ref name= AttackResearch>Template:Cite web</ref> This number may be conservative in light of several areas where humans and saltwater crocodiles co-exist in relatively undeveloped, low-economy and rural regions, where attacks are likely to go unreported.<ref name=SideleauBritton2012>Sideleau, B., & Britton, A. R. C. (2012). "A preliminary analysis of worldwide crocodilian attacks", pp. 111–114 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 21st Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.</ref> However, claims in the past that saltwater crocodiles are responsible for thousands of human fatalities annually are likely to have been exaggerations and were probably falsified to benefit leather companies, hunting organisations and other sources that may have benefited from maximising the negative perception of crocodiles for financial gain.<ref name= Guggisberg/><ref name="Wood"/><ref name= AttackResearch/> Despite their reputations, many wild saltwater crocodiles are normally quite wary of humans and will go out of their way to submerge and swim away from them, even large adult males, if previously subject to harassment or persecution.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Somaweera, R. & A. de Silva (2013). Using traditional knowledge to minimize human-crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka, pp. 257. In: Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.</ref> Some attacks on humans appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature, with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area (including boats). Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters, which comprise about half of all attacks. Non-fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of Template:Convert or less in length. Fatal attacks, more likely to be predatory in motivation, commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of Template:Convert. Under normal circumstances, Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles, but this may have more to do with the fact that many people in Africa tend to rely on riparian areas for their livelihood, which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia.<ref name= AttackResearch/> In the Andaman Islands, the number of fatal attacks on humans has reportedly increased, possibly due to habitat destruction and reduction of natural prey.<ref>Sivaperuman, C. (2014). Saltwater Crocodiles in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with Special Reference to Human–Crocodile Conflict. Marine Faunal Diversity in India: Taxonomy, Ecology and Conservation, 453.</ref>
During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945, saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers. British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating, condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves, which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles. Many Japanese soldiers did not survive this night, but the attribution of the majority of their deaths to crocodile attacks has been doubted.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Another reported mass attack involved a cruise in eastern India where a boat accident forced 28 people into the water where they were reportedly consumed by saltwater crocodiles.<ref name="Wood"/> Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985, on ecofeminist Val Plumwood, who survived the attack and learned that the advice she had received that crocodiles do not attack canoes was inaccurate.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In July 2018, a 600-strong mob slaughtered 292 saltwater and New Guinea crocodiles in Papua province in Indonesia in a revenge attack after a man who encroached upon the sanctuary was devoured.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Cultural references
The saltwater crocodile is considered holy on Timor. According to legend, the island was formed by a giant crocodile. The Papuan people have a similar and very involved myth and traditionally the crocodile was described as a relative (normally a father or grandfather).<ref name="Guggisberg"/>
According to Wondjina, the mythology of Indigenous Australians, the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large, unlike the freshwater crocodile, which was somewhat revered.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare, although examples of up to 3,000 years old were found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land, roughly matching the distribution of the species. It is however depicted in contemporary aboriginal art.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Larrakia people think of themselves as crocodile descendants, and regard it as their totem.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> They respect crocodiles as protectors of harbours and do not eat crocodile meat.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The species is featured on several postage stamps, including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12-cent stamp; a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species; a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp; a 1994 Palau 20-cent stamp; a 1997 Australian 22-cent stamp; and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp.
The saltwater crocodile has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the Crocodile Dundee series of films, horror films Black Water and Rogue and The Crocodile Hunter television series. There are now several saltwater crocodile–themed parks in Australia.Template:Citation needed
Examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles
The largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile has always been a subject of considerable controversy. The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient/inconclusive data or exaggeration from a folkloric point of view. This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded outside scientific norms measurement and estimation, with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution, as well as serving an educational purpose of guiding the reader to separate fact from possible fiction. Below, in descending order starting from the largest, are some examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles, recorded throughout history.
- A crocodile shot in the Bay of Bengal in 1840 was reported at Template:Convert. Furthermore, this specimen was claimed to have a belly girth of Template:Convert and a body mass estimated Template:Convert. However, the skull of this specimen was examined by Guinness Records and found to be only Template:Convert in length, indicating the above size was considerably exaggerated and the animal would have probably measured no more than Template:Convert.<ref name="Wood"/>
- James R. Montgomery, who ran a plantation near to the Lower Kinabatangan Segama Wetlands in Borneo from 1926 to 1932, claimed to have netted, killed, and examined numerous crocodiles well over Template:Convert there, including a specimen he claims measured Template:Convert. However, no one scientifically confirmed any of Montgomery's specimens and no voucher specimens are known.<ref name="Wood"/>
- A crocodile shot in Queensland in 1957, nicknamed Krys the croc (named after the woman that shot the crocodile in July 1957; Krystina Pawlowski), was reported to be Template:Convert long, but no verified measurements were made and no remains of this crocodile exist.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A "replica" of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- A crocodile killed in 1823 at Jalajala on the main island of Luzon in the Philippines was reported at Template:Convert. However the skull of the specimen is Template:Convert long indicating an animal of approximately Template:Convert.<ref name="Wood"/>
- A crocodile shot in Odisha, India,<ref name="underwatertimes1">Template:Cite web</ref> was claimed to measure Template:Convert in life, but its skull, when given scholarly examination, was thought to have come from a crocodile of a length no greater than Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- A reported Template:Convert crocodile was killed in the Hooghly River in the Alipore District of Calcutta. However, examinations of the animal's skull, one of the largest skulls known to exist for the species at Template:Convert long, actually indicating it could have measured Template:Convert.<ref name="Wood"/>
- In 2006, Guinness accepted a Template:Convert, Template:Convert male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha. Due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions is yet to be verified. These observations and estimations have been made by park officials over the course of ten years, from 2006 to 2016, however, regardless of the skill of the observers it cannot be compared to a verified tape measurement, especially considering the uncertainty inherent in visual size estimation in the wild.<ref name=Bayliss>Bayliss, P. (1987). Survey methods and monitoring within crocodile management programmes. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, pages 157–175</ref> In addition, this region may contain up to four other specimens measuring over Template:Convert.<ref name="underwatertimes1"/><ref name="ohmynews1">Template:Cite web</ref>
- S. Baker (1874) claimed that in Sri Lanka in the 1800s, specimens measuring Template:Convert or more were commonplace.<ref name="Wood"/> However, the largest specimen killed on the island that was considered authentic by Guinness Records was a suspected man-eater killed in the Eastern Province and measuring exactly Template:Convert in length.<ref name="Wood"/>
- The record size for a crocodile from Papua New Guinea to be considered authentic by Guinness was a Template:Convert specimen shot by Herb Schweighofer in May 1966 along the northeastern coast. This specimen had a belly girth of Template:Convert.<ref name="Wood"/>
See also
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Template:Wikispecies Template:Commons category
- Fisheries Western Australia – Estuarine Crocodile Fact Sheet Template:Webarchive
- Saltwater crocodiles in freedom: Authentic pictures and descriptions
- Comprehensive Saltwater Crocodile web site with information, images and video presentations
- Saltwater crocodile calls from Dr. Britton's crocodilian.com (Template:Webarchive)
- Brief discussion (Template:Webarchive) from Dr. Britton and others discussing dromaeosaurid intelligence
- Template:Cite web
Template:Crocodilia Template:Crocs Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control
- Pages with broken file links
- Apex predators
- Articles containing video clips
- Crocodiles of Australia
- Crocodilians of Asia
- Crocodilians of New Guinea
- Crocodylidae
- Extant Zanclean first appearances
- Fauna of Palau
- Fauna of the Lesser Sunda Islands
- Marine crocodylomorphs
- Pliocene reptiles of Asia
- Quaternary reptiles of Asia
- Reptiles described in 1801
- Reptiles of Bangladesh
- Reptiles of Borneo
- Reptiles of Brunei
- Reptiles of Cambodia
- Reptiles of Fiji
- Reptiles of India
- Reptiles of Indonesia
- Reptiles of Malaysia
- Reptiles of Myanmar
- Reptiles of Papua New Guinea
- Reptiles of Southeast Asia
- Reptiles of Sri Lanka
- Reptiles of Thailand
- Reptiles of the Philippines
- Reptiles of the Solomon Islands
- Reptiles of Vietnam
- Reptiles of Western Australia
- Taxa named by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider