Shtetl

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An 1893 painting by the artist Isaak Asknaziy of a Jewish wedding with a Template:Lang band in a Template:Lang

Template:Lang or Template:Lang (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell;<ref>Template:Cite Dictionary.com</ref> Template:Langx, Template:IPA; pl. Template:Lang shtetelekh) is a Yiddish term for small towns with predominantly Ashkenazi Jewish populations which existed in Eastern Europe before the Holocaust. The term is used in the context of former Eastern European Jewish societies as mandated islands within the surrounding non-Jewish populace, and thus bears certain connotations of discrimination.<ref name=maschu>Marie Schumacher-Brunhes, "Shtetl", European History Online, published July 3, 2015</ref> Template:Lang (or Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> were mainly found in the areas that constituted the 19th-century Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire (constituting modern-day Belarus, Lithuania, Moldova, Ukraine, Poland, Latvia and Russia), as well as in Congress Poland, Austrian Galicia and Bukovina, the Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name="maschu" />

In Yiddish, a larger city, like Lviv or Chernivtsi, is called a Template:Lang (Template:Langx), and a village is called a Template:Lang (Template:Langx).<ref>Template:Citation.</ref> Template:Lang is a diminutive of Template:Lang with the meaning 'little town'. Despite the existence of Jewish self-administration (Template:Lang/Template:Lang), officially there were no separate Jewish municipalities, and the Template:Lang was referred to as a Template:Lang or Template:Lang (Template:Lang, in Russian bureaucracy), a type of settlement which originated in the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and was formally recognized in the Russian Empire as well. For clarification, the expression "Jewish Template:Lang" was often used.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Template:Lang as a phenomenon of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe was destroyed by the Nazis during the Holocaust.<ref name="tabletmag.com" /> The term is sometimes used to describe largely Jewish communities in the United States, such as existed on the Lower East Side of New York City in the early 20th century, and predominantly Hasidic communities such as Kiryas Joel and New Square today.

Overview

Map showing percentage of Jews in the Pale of Settlement and Congress Poland, Template:Circa

A Template:Lang is defined by Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern as "an East European market town in private possession of a Polish magnate, inhabited mostly but not exclusively by Jews" and from the 1790s onward and until 1915 shtetls were also "subject to Russian bureaucracy",<ref name="ReferenceA" /> as the Russian Empire had annexed the entire Lithuania and the eastern part of Poland, and was administering the area where the settlement of Jews was permitted. The concept of Template:Lang culture describes the traditional way of life of East European Jews. In literature by authors such as Sholem Aleichem and Isaac Bashevis Singer, shtetls are portrayed as pious communities following Orthodox Judaism, socially stable and unchanging despite outside influence or attacks.

History

The history of the oldest Eastern European Template:Lang began around the 13th century.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Throughout this history, shtetls saw periods of relative tolerance and prosperity as well as times of extreme poverty and hardships, including pogroms in the 19th-century Russian Empire. According to Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog (1962):<ref name="LWP">Template:Cite book</ref>

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The May Laws introduced by Tsar Alexander III of Russia in 1882 banned Jews from rural areas and towns of fewer than ten thousand people. In the 20th century, revolutions, civil wars, industrialisation and the Holocaust destroyed traditional Template:Lang existence.

The decline of the Template:Lang started from about the 1840s. Contributing factors included poverty as a result of changes in economic climate (including industrialisation which hurt the traditional Jewish artisan and the movement of trade to the larger towns), repeated fires destroying the wooden homes, and overpopulation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Also, the antisemitism of the Russian Imperial administrators and the Polish landlords, as well as the resultant pogroms in the 1880s, made life difficult for residents of the shtetl. From the 1880s until 1915 up to 2 million Jews left Eastern Europe. At the time about three-quarters of its Jewish population lived in areas defined as Template:Langs. The Holocaust resulted in the total extermination of these towns.<ref name="tabletmag.com">Template:Cite AV media</ref> It was not uncommon for the entire Jewish population of a Template:Lang to be rounded up and murdered in a nearby forest or taken to the various concentration camps.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Some Template:Lang inhabitants were able to emigrate before and after the Holocaust, which resulted in many Ashkenazi Jewish traditions being passed on. However, the Template:Lang as a community of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe, as well as much of the culture specific to this way of life, was all but eradicated by the Nazis.<ref name="tabletmag.com" />

Modern usage

In the later part of the 20th century, Hasidic Jews founded new communities in the United States, such as Kiryas Joel and New Square, and they sometimes use the term "Template:Lang" to refer to these enclaves in Yiddish, particularly those with village structures.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Europe, the Orthodox community in Antwerp, Belgium, is widely described as the last Template:Lang, composed of about 12,000 people.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Gateshead, United Kingdom Orthodox community is also sometimes called a shtetl.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Brno, Czech Republic, has a significant Jewish history and Yiddish words are part of the now dying-out Hantec slang. The word "Template:Lang" (pronounced Template:Lang) refers to Brno itself.

Qırmızı Qəsəbə, in Azerbaijan, thought to be the only 100% Jewish community not in Israel or the United States, has been described as a Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Culture

A reconstruction of a traditional Jewish Template:Lang in the South African Jewish Museum in Cape Town, as it would have appeared in Lithuania
Interior of a wooden dwelling in a traditional Lithuanian Template:Lang, reconstructed in the South African Jewish Museum, Cape Town

Not only did the Jews of the Template:Lang speak Yiddish, a language rarely spoken by outsiders, but they also had a unique rhetorical style, rooted in traditions of Talmudic learning:<ref name="LWP" />

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Template:Lang provided a strong sense of community. The Template:Lang "at its heart, it was a community of faith built upon a deeply rooted religious culture".<ref name=":0" /> A Jewish education was most paramount in Template:Lang. Men and boys could spend up to 10 hours a day dedicated to studying at a Template:Lang. Discouraged from Talmudic study, women would perform the necessary tasks of a household. In addition, shtetls offered communal institutions such as synagogues, ritual baths and ritual food processors.

Template:Lang (charity) is a key element of Jewish culture, both secular and religious, to this day. Template:Lang was essential for Template:Lang Jews, many of whom lived in poverty. Acts of philanthropy aided social institutions such as schools and orphanages. Jews viewed giving charity as an opportunity to do a good deed (Template:Lang).<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>

This approach to good deeds finds its roots in Jewish religious views, summarized in Pirkei Avot by Shimon Hatzaddik's "three pillars":<ref>Excerpt from Pirke Avot from aish.com.</ref>

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Material things were neither disdained nor extremely praised in the Template:Lang. Learning and education were the ultimate measures of worth in the eyes of the community, while money was secondary to status. As the Template:Lang formed an entire town and community, residents worked diverse jobs such as shoe-making , metallurgy, or tailoring of clothes. Studying was considered the most valuable and hardest work of all. Learned Template:Lang men who did not provide bread and relied on their wives for money were not frowned upon but praised.

There is a belief found in historical and literary writings that the Template:Lang disintegrated before it was destroyed during World War II; however, Joshua Rosenberg of the Institute of East-European Jewish Affairs at Brandeis University argued that this alleged cultural break-up is never clearly defined. He argued that the whole Jewish life in Eastern Europe, not only in Template:Lang, "was in a state of permanent crisis, both political and economic, of social uncertainty and cultural conflicts". Rosenberg outlines a number of reasons for the image of "disintegrating Template:Lang'" and other kinds of stereotyping. For one, it was an "anti-Template:Lang" propaganda of the Zionist movement. Yiddish and Hebrew literature can only to a degree be considered to represent the complete reality. It mostly focused on the elements that attract attention, rather than on an "average Jew". Also, in successful America, memories of Template:Lang, in addition to sufferings, were colored with nostalgia and sentimentalism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Artistic depictions

Literary references

The city of Chełm, in what is today southeastern Poland, figures prominently in the Jewish humor as the legendary town of fools: the Wise Men of Chelm.

Kasrilevka, the setting of many of Sholem Aleichem's stories, and Anatevka, the setting of the musical Fiddler on the Roof (based on other stories of Sholem Aleichem), are other notable fictional Template:Lang.

Devorah Baron made aliyah to Ottoman Palestine in 1910, after a pogrom destroyed her shtetl near Minsk. But she continued writing about Template:Lang life long after she had arrived in Palestine.

Many of Joseph Roth's books are based on Template:Lang on the Eastern fringes of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and most notably on his hometown Brody.

Many of Isaac Bashevis Singer's short stories and novels are set in Template:Lang. Singer's mother was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj, a town in south-eastern Poland. As a child, Singer lived in Biłgoraj for periods with his family, and he wrote that life in the small town made a deep impression on him.

The 2002 novel Everything Is Illuminated, by Jonathan Safran Foer, tells a fictional story set in the Ukrainian Template:Lang Trachimbrod (Trochenbrod).

The 1992 children's book Something from Nothing, written and illustrated by Phoebe Gilman, is an adaptation of a traditional Jewish folk tale set in a fictional Template:Lang.

In 1996 the Frontline programme "Template:Lang" broadcast; it was about Polish Christian and Jewish relations.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Harry Turtledove's 2011 short story "Shtetl Days",<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> begins in a typical Template:Lang reminiscent of the works of Aleichem, Roth, et al., but soon reveals a plot twist which subverts the genre.

The award-winning 2014 novel The Books of Jacob by Olga Tokarczuk features many Template:Lang communities across the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref>Tokarczuk, O. (2022). The Books of Jacob, Riverhead Books.</ref>

Painting

Many Jewish artists in Eastern Europe dedicated much of their artistic careers to depictions of the Template:Lang. These include Marc Chagall, Chaim Goldberg, Chaïm Soutine and Mané-Katz. Their contribution is in making a permanent record in color of the life that is described in literature—the klezmers, the weddings, the marketplaces and the religious aspects of the culture.

Photography

  • Alter Kacyzne (1885–1941), Jewish writer (Yiddish-language prose and poetry) and photographer; immortalized Jewish life in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s.
  • Roman Vishniac (1897–1990), Russian-, later American-Jewish biologist and photographer; photographed traditional Jewish life in Eastern Europe in 1935–39.

Film

Documentaries

See also

References

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Further reading

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