Svalbard Treaty

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox treaty The Svalbard Treaty (originally the Spitsbergen Treaty) recognises the sovereignty of Norway over the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, at the time called Spitsbergen. The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. The treaty restricts military uses of the archipelago, but it is not demilitarized.<ref>

</ref> The signatories were given equal rights to engage in commercial activities (mainly coal mining) on the islands.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Template:As of, Norway and Russia make use of this right.

Uniquely, the archipelago is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty.<ref>Immigrants warmly welcomed, Al Jazeera, 4 July 2006.</ref>

The treaty was signed on 9 February 1920 and submitted for registration in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 21 October 1920.<ref>League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2, pp. 8–19</ref> There were 14 original High Contracting Parties: Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands,<ref>On Dutch interest and historical claims see Muller, Hendrik, 'Nederland's historische rechten op Spitsbergen', Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 2e serie, deel 34 (1919) no. 1, 94–104.</ref> Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and India), and the United States.<ref name="treatytext">Template:Cite web</ref> Of the original signatories, Japan was the last to ratify the treaty on 2 April 1925, and the treaty came into force on 14 August 1925.<ref>Spitsbergen Treaty and Ratification (in Norwegian)</ref>

Many additional nations acceded to the treaty after it was ratified by the original signatories, including several before it came into force. Template:As of, there are 48 parties to the treaty.<ref name=fr>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=nl>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=at>Template:Cite web</ref>

Name of the treaty

The original treaty is titled the Treaty recognising the sovereignty of Norway over the Archipelago of Spitsbergen. It refers to the entire archipelago as Spitsbergen, which had been the only name in common usage since 1596 (with minor variations in spelling). In 1925, five years after the conclusion of the treaty, the Norwegian authorities proceeded to officially rename the islands "Svalbard". This new name was a modern adaptation of the ancient toponym Template:Lang, attested in the Norse sagas as early as 1194. The exonym Spitsbergen subsequently came to be applied to the main island in the archipelago.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Accordingly, in modern historiography the Treaty of Spitsbergen is commonly referred to anachronistically as the Svalbard Treaty to reflect the name change.Template:Cn

History

The archipelago was discovered by the Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz in 1596.<ref>Template:Citation Alt URL</ref> It was named Spitsbergen, meaning 'sharp-peaked mountains' (literally 'spits-berg'). It was uninhabited.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The islands were renamed in the 1920s by Norway as Svalbard.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Spitsbergen/Svalbard began as a territory free of a nation, with people from different countries participating in industries including fishing, whaling, mining, research and later, tourism. Not belonging to any nation left Svalbard largely free of regulations or laws, though there were conflicts over the area due to whaling rights and sovereignty disputes between England, the Netherlands and Denmark–Norway in the first half of the 17th century.<ref>Torkildsen (1984), pp. 34–36</ref> By the 20th century mineral deposits were found on the main island and continual conflicts between miners and owners created the need for a government.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Contents

The Spitsbergen Treaty was signed in Paris on 9 February 1920, during the Versailles negotiations after World War I. In this treaty, international diplomacy recognized Norwegian sovereignty (the Norwegian administration went in effect by 1925) and other principles relating to Svalbard. This includes:<ref name="treatytext" />

• Svalbard is part of Norway: Svalbard is completely controlled by and forms part of the Kingdom of Norway. However, Norway's power over Svalbard is restricted by the limitations listed below:
• Taxation: Taxes are allowed to be collected, but only enough to support Svalbard and the Svalbard government. This results in lower taxes than mainland Norway and the exclusion of any taxes on Svalbard supporting mainland Norway directly. Svalbard's revenues and expenses are separately budgeted from mainland Norway.
• Environmental conservation: Norway must respect and preserve the Svalbard environment.
• Non-discrimination: All citizens and all companies of every nation under the treaty are allowed to become residents and to have access to Svalbard including the right to fish, hunt or undertake any kind of maritime, industrial, mining or trade activity. The residents of Svalbard must follow Norwegian law, though Norwegian authority cannot discriminate against or favour any residents of any given nationality. Russia has exercised this right of residency and in 2022 announced new investment plans to support its presence at Barentsburg and Pyramiden.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• Military restrictions: Article 9 prohibits naval bases and fortifications and also the use of Svalbard for war-like purposes. Norway interprets this provision as still permitting access to the territory by the Norwegian Armed Forces to exercise sovereignty and protect the environment. This largely encompasses visits by Norwegian military forces, particularly Norwegian Coast Guard vessels, to the territory. However, certain other signatory states, particularly Russia, dispute this interpretation. Notably, while Norway maintains that it has exclusive rights under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to the continental shelf around Svalbard, Russia rejects this position. Russia also objects to Norwegian or NATO military activities around Svalbard which, Russia claims, undermine the treaty’s military restrictions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Disputes regarding natural resources

There has been a long-running dispute, primarily between Norway and Russia (and before it, the Soviet Union) over fishing rights in the region.<ref name="Elferink">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Ostreng">Template:Cite book</ref> In 1977, Norway established a regulated fishery in a Template:Convert zone around Svalbard (though it did not close the zone to foreign access).<ref name="Elferink" /> Norway argues that the treaty's provisions of equal economic access apply only to the islands and their territorial waters (four nautical miles at the time) but not to the wider exclusive economic zone. In addition, it argues that the continental shelf is a part of mainland Norway's continental shelf and should be governed by the 1958 Continental Shelf Convention.<ref name="Ostreng" /> The Soviet Union/Russia disputed and continues to dispute this position and consider the Spitsbergen Treaty to apply to the entire zone. Talks were held in 1978 in Moscow but did not resolve the issue.<ref name="Elferink" /> Finland and Canada support Norway's position, while most of the other treaty signatories have expressed no official position.<ref name="Elferink" /> The relevant parts of the treaty are as follows:

according to Norway's largest newspaper, Aftenposten, "Mainly the dispute is about whether the Svalbard Treaty also is in effect outside the 12 nautical mile territorial sea". The paper reported in 2011 that if the treaty comes into effect outside the zone, then Norway will not be able to claim the full 78% of profits of oil and gas harvesting.<ref>Aftenposten, "USA snuser på Svalbard-olje". Torbjørn Pedersen, p. 14</ref>

Parties

A list of parties is shown below; the dates below reflect when a nation deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.<ref name=fr/><ref name=nl/><ref name=at/> Some parties are successor states to the countries that joined the treaty, as noted below.

Country	Date of ratification	Notes
Afghanistan	Template:Dts
Albania	Template:Dts
Argentina	Template:Dts
Australia	Template:Dts	Extension by the United Kingdom.
Austria	Template:Dts
Belgium	Template:Dts
Bulgaria	Template:Dts
Canada	Template:Dts	Extension by the United Kingdom.
Chile	Template:Dts
China	Template:Dts	Acceded as the Republic of China. Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China claim to be the successor or continuing state, but as of 2024 all other parties to the treaty recognize only the People's Republic of China.
Czech Republic	Template:Dts	Czechoslovakia acceded to the treaty on Template:Dts. On Template:Dts, the Czech Republic stated that it considered itself bound to the treaty since its independence on Template:Dts, as a successor state.
Denmark	Template:Dts	Extension to the entire Danish Realm.
Dominican Republic	Template:Dts
Egypt	Template:Dts
Estonia	Template:Dts
Finland	Template:Dts
France	Template:Dts
Germany	Template:Dts	Acceded as the Weimar Republic. On Template:Dts, East Germany stated that it also reapplied the treaty since Template:Dts. East Germany reunited with West Germany on 3 October 1990.
Greece	Template:Dts
Hungary	Template:Dts
Iceland	Template:Dts
India	Template:Dts	Extension by the United Kingdom.
Ireland	Template:Dts	The Irish Free State left the United Kingdom after the latter signed the treaty but before it was ratified. On Template:Dts, Ireland stated that it also applied the treaty since its ratification by the United Kingdom.
Italy	Template:Dts
Japan	Template:Dts
Latvia	Template:Dts
Lithuania	Template:Dts
Monaco	Template:Dts
Netherlands	Template:Dts	Extension to the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.
New Zealand	Template:Dts	Extension by the United Kingdom.
North Korea	Template:Dts
Norway	Template:Dts
Poland	Template:Dts
Portugal	Template:Dts
Romania	Template:Dts
Russia	Template:Dts	Acceded as the Soviet Union. On Template:Dts, Russia declared that it continued to apply the treaties concluded by the Soviet Union.
Saudi Arabia	Template:Dts	Acceded as the Kingdom of Hejaz.
Serbia	Template:Dts	Yugoslavia acceded to the treaty on Template:Dts. On Template:Dts, Serbia declared to continue the application of the treaty.
Slovakia	Template:Dts	Czechoslovakia acceded to the treaty on Template:Dts. On Template:Dts, Slovakia stated that it considered itself bound to the treaty since its independence on Template:Dts, as a successor state.
South Africa	Template:Dts	Extension by the United Kingdom.
South Korea	Template:Dts
Spain	Template:Dts
Sweden	Template:Dts
Switzerland	Template:Dts
Turkey	Template:Dts
United Kingdom	Template:Dts	Extension to Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and South Africa. Ireland also applied the treaty since its ratification by the United Kingdom.
United States	Template:Dts
Venezuela	Template:Dts

See also

• List of treaties
• Antarctic Treaty System

Further reading

• Template:Cite conference

External links

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• Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris 9th February 1920.
• Treaty Concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen
• Svalbard Treaty and Ratification Template:In lang
• Svalbard – an important arena – Speech by Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 15 April 2006.