Shilha language

File:WIKITONGUES- Abderrahman speaking Tachelhit.webm

Young man speaking Tachelhit, recorded in Cuba.

Tashelhiyt or Tachelhit (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; from the endonym Template:Lang, Template:IPA),Template:Efn or also known as Shilha (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; from its name in Moroccan Arabic, Template:Transliteration) is a Berber language spoken in southwestern Morocco. When referring to the language, anthropologists and historians prefer the name Shilha, which is in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Linguists writing in English prefer Tashelhit (or a variant spelling). In French sources the language is called Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang.

Shilha is spoken in an area covering around 100,000 square kilometres. The area comprises the western part of the High Atlas mountains and the regions to the south up to the Draa River, including the Anti-Atlas and the alluvial basin of the Sous River. The largest urban centres in the area are the coastal city of Agadir (population over 400,000) and the towns of Guelmim, Taroudant, Oulad Teima, Tiznit and Ouarzazate.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">Adnor, Abdellah (2004). An Electronic Tashlhit-English Dictionary (Prototype) (PhD thesis). Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco. p. 13-14.</ref>Template:Citation needed

In the north and to the south, Shilha borders Arabic-speaking areas. In the northeast, roughly along the line Demnate-Zagora, there is a dialect continuum with Central Atlas Tamazight. Within the Shilha-speaking area, there are several Arabic-speaking enclaves, notably the town of Taroudant and its surroundings. Substantial Shilha-speaking migrant communities are found in most of the larger towns and cities of northern Morocco and outside Morocco in Belgium, France, Germany, Canada, the United States and Israel.<ref name=":5" />Template:Citation needed

Shilha possesses a distinct and substantial literary tradition that can be traced back several centuries before the protectorate era. Many texts, written in Arabic script and dating from the late 16th century to the present, are preserved in manuscripts. A modern printed literature in Shilha has developed since the 1970s.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> Template:TOC limit

Name

Shilha speakers usually refer to their language as Template:Lang.<ref>Justinard (1914:2), Destaing (1920:166), Galand (1988, 1.14).</ref> This name is morphologically a feminine noun, derived from masculine Template:Lang "male speaker of Shilha". Shilha names of other languages are formed in the same way, for example Template:Lang "an Arab", Template:Lang "the Arabic language".<ref>Destaing (1920:20, 166). See also Template:Section link.</ref>

The origin of the names Template:Lang and Template:Lang has recently become a subject of debate (see Shilha people#Naming for various theories). The presence of the consonant Template:Lang in the name suggests an originally exonymic (Arabic) origin. The first appearance of the name in a western printed source is found in Mármol's Template:Lang (1573), which mentions the "indigenous Africans called Xilohes or Berbers" (Template:Lang).<ref>Marmol (1573, book I, chapter XXXIII, fol. 43v).</ref>

The initial Template:Lang in Template:Lang is a Shilha nominal prefix (see Template:Section link). The ending Template:Lang (borrowed from the Arabic suffix Template:Lang) forms denominal nouns and adjectives. There are also variant forms Template:Lang and Template:Lang, with Template:Lang instead of Template:Lang under the influence of the preceding consonant Template:Lang.<ref>Stumme (1899:3); Laoust (1936:v).</ref> The plural of Template:Lang is Template:Lang; a single female speaker is a Template:Lang (noun homonymous with the name of the language), plural Template:Lang.

In Moroccan colloquial Arabic, a male speaker is called a Template:Transliteration, plural Template:Transliteration, and the language is Template:Transliteration,<ref>Fox and Abu-Talib (1966:155), Colin (1993:976).</ref> a feminine derivation calqued on Template:Lang. The Moroccan Arabic names have been borrowed into English as a Shilh, the Shluh, and Shilha, and into French as Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang or, more commonly, Template:Lang.

The now-usual names Template:Lang and Template:Lang in their endonymic use seem to have gained the upper hand relatively recently, as they are attested only in those manuscript texts which date from the 19th and 20th centuries. In older texts, the language is still referred to as Template:Lang or Template:Lang "Tamazight". For example, the author Awzal (early 18th c.) speaks of Template:Lang "a composition in that beautiful Tamazight".<ref>Awzal, Template:Transliteration, v. 5 (edition in van den Boogert 1997).</ref>

Because Souss is the most heavily populated part of the language area, the name Template:Lang (lit. "language of Souss") is now often used as a pars pro toto for the entire language.<ref>Justinard (1914:2), Laoust (1936:vi).</ref> A speaker of Template:Lang is an Template:Lang, plural Template:Lang, feminine Template:Lang, plural Template:Lang.

Number of speakers

File:Percent of Tashlhit speakers in Morocco by census 2004.png

Percentage of Shilha speakers per region according to 2004 census<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

File:Communes of Tachelhit.png

Communes or municipalities where Tachelhit is majority in Morocco (year 2014)

With 4.7 million speakers or 14% of Morocco's population, Tachelhit is the most widely spoken Amazigh language in the Kingdom, ahead of Tamazight and Tarifit. Its speakers represent more than half of the 8.8 million Amazighophones.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite web</ref>

It is also the Amazigh language that has the greatest geographical extension in the country. Its speakers are present in 1512 of the 1538 municipalities in the kingdom. This distribution is notably the result of a large diaspora of small traders who have settled throughout the country, but also of workers in search of employment opportunities.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">Template:Cite web</ref>

Five Moroccan regions have a rate of Tachelhit speakers higher than the national average: Souss-Massa, Guelmim–Oued Noun, Marrakech–Safi and Drâa–Tafilalet and Dakhla–Oued Ed Dahab. They concentrate 79% of the speakers. However, only two of them have a majority of Tachelhito speakers: Souss–Massa with 66% of its population (1,765,417 speakers) and Guelmim–Oued Noun with 50% (218,650 speakers). This rate drops to 26% for Marrakech–Safi (1,185,846 speakers), 22% for Drâa–Tafilalet (359,936 speakers) and 18% in Dakhla–Oued Ed Dahab (25,198 speakers).<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

Like the high concentration of Tachelhit-speaking speakers in Dakhla, Tachelhit is spoken significantly by many inhabitants, in Moroccan municipalities outside the area where the language historically originated. With 49% of its speakers living in cities, Tachelhit has become highly urbanized. Thus, 10% of Casablancais speak Tachelhit, i.e. more than 334,000 people. Casablanca is therefore the first Tachelhit city in Morocco, ahead of Agadir (225,000 speakers). Similarly, 9.2% of Rbatis speak Tachelhit, i.e. more than 52,000 people, or 4% of Tangiers and Oujdis. Finally, there are singular cases of very outlying municipalities such as the fishing village of Imlili, south of Dakhla (60% of speakers) or the rural municipality of Moulay Ahmed Cherif, 60 km west of the city of Al Hoceima (54% speakers). These situations are reminiscent of the historical migrations that have followed one another over the long term and especially the massive rural exodus that began in the 20th century towards the economic metropolises.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />

Rank	Cities	Population speaking Tachelhit	Percentage of the city
1	Casablanca	334 364	Template:Percentage bar
2	Agadir	225 695	Template:Percentage bar
3	Marrakech	214 327	Template:Percentage bar
4	Ait Melloul	113 410	Template:Percentage bar
5	Sale	79 820	Template:Percentage bar
6	Inezgane	66 558	Template:Percentage bar
7	Tiznit	65 105	Template:Percentage bar
8	Dcheira El Jihadia	61 590	Template:Percentage bar
9	Rabat	52 690	Template:Percentage bar
10	Ouarzazate	43 110	Template:Percentage bar

Although many speakers of Shilha, especially men, are bilingual in Moroccan Arabic, there are as yet no indications that the survival of Shilha as a living language will be seriously threatened in the immediate future. Because of the rapid growth of the Moroccan population over the past decades (from 12 million in 1961 to over 33 million in 2014), it is safe to say that Shilha is now spoken by more people than ever before in history.

Dialects

Dialect differentiation within Shilha, such as it is, has not been the subject of any targeted research, but several scholars have noted that all varieties of Shilha are mutually intelligible. The first was Stumme, who observed that all speakers can understand each other, "because the individual dialects of their language are not very different."<ref>Stumme (1899:4).</ref> This was later confirmed by Ahmed Boukous, a Moroccan linguist and himself a native speaker of Shilha, who stated: "Shilha is endowed with a profound unity which permits the Shluh to communicate without problem, from the Ihahan in the northwest to the Aït Baamran in the southwest, from the Achtouken in the west to the Iznagen in the east, and from Aqqa in the desert to Tassaout in the plain of Marrakesh."<ref>Boukous (1977:126).</ref>

There exists no sharply defined boundary between Shilha dialects and the dialects of Central Atlas Tamazight (CAT). The dividing line is generally put somewhere along the line Marrakesh-Zagora, with the speech of the Ighoujdamen, Iglioua and Aït Ouaouzguite ethnic groupsTemplate:Efn belonging to Shilha, and that of the neighboring Inoultan, Infedouak and Imeghran ethnic groups counted as CAT.

Writing systems

File:Muhammad Awzal.jpg

Shilha written in Arabic script: an 18th-century manuscript of al-Ḥawḍ by Mḥmmd Awzal.

Though Tashelhit has historically been an oral language, manuscripts of mostly religious texts have been written in Tashelhit using the Arabic script since at least the 16th century.<ref name="Campbell-2012b">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Today, Tashelhit is most commonly written in the Arabic script, although Neo-Tifinagh is also used.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Literature

Template:MainShilha has an extensive body of oral literature in a wide variety of genres (fairy tales, animal stories, taleb stories, poems, riddles, and tongue-twisters). A large number of oral texts and ethnographic texts on customs and traditions have been recorded and published since the end of the 19th century, mainly by European linguists.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Shilha possesses an old literary tradition. Numerous texts written in Arabic script are preserved in manuscripts dating from the 16th century.<ref name=":2" /> The earliest datable text is a compendium of lectures on the "religious sciences" (Template:Lang) composed in metrical verses by Template:Lang, who died in 1597. The best known writer in this tradition is Mḥmmd u Ɛli Awzal, author of Template:Lang "The Cistern" (a handbook of Maliki law in verse), Template:Lang "The Ocean of Tears" (an adhortation, with a description of Judgment Day, in verse) and other texts.<ref>Van den Boogert (1997) offers a first exploration of Shilha manuscript literature, including an edition and translation of Awzal's work Template:Transliteration. An older edition of this work, in the original Arabic script, is in Stricker (1960).</ref>

Modern Tashelhit literature has been developing since the end of the 20th century.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Research

The first attempt at a grammatical description of Shilha is the work of the German linguist Hans Stumme (1864–1936), who in 1899 published his Template:Lang. Stumme's grammar remained the richest source of grammatical information on Shilha for half a century. A problem with the work is its use of an over-elaborate, phonetic transcription which, while designed to be precise, generally fails to provide a transparent representation of spoken forms. Stumme also published a collection of Shilha fairy tales (1895, re-edited in Stroomer 2002).

The next author to grapple with Shilha is Saïd Cid Kaoui (Saʿīd al-Sidqāwī, 1859-1910), a native speaker of Kabyle from Algeria. Having published a dictionary of Tuareg (1894), he then turned his attention to the Berber languages of Morocco. His Template:Lang (1907) contains extensive vocabularies in both Shilha and Central Atlas Tamazight, in addition to some 20 pages of useful phrases. The work seems to have been put together in some haste and must be consulted with caution.

On the eve of the First World War there appeared a small, practical booklet composed by Captain (later Colonel) Léopold Justinard (1878–1959), entitled Template:Lang. It contains a short grammatical sketch, a collection of stories, poems and songs, and some interesting dialogues, all with translations. The work was written while the author was overseeing military operations in the region of Fès, shortly after the imposition of the French protectorate (1912). Justinard also wrote several works on the history of the Souss.

Emile Laoust (1876–1952), prolific author of books and articles about Berber languages, in 1921 published his Template:Lang (2nd enlarged edition 1936), a teaching grammar with graded lessons and thematic vocabularies, some good ethnographic texts (without translations) and a wordlist.

Edmond Destaing (1872–1940) greatly advanced knowledge of the Shilha lexicon with his Template:Lang (1920) and his Template:Lang (1940, with copious lexical notes). Destaing also planned a grammar which was to complete the trilogy, but this was never published.

Lieutenant-interpreter (later Commander) Robert Aspinion is the author of Template:Lang (1953), an informative though somewhat disorganized teaching grammar. Aspinion's simple but accurate transcriptions did away with earlier phonetic and French-based systems.

The first attempted description in English is Outline of the Structure of Shilha (1958) by American linguist Joseph Applegate (1925–2003). Based on work with native speakers from Ifni, the work is written in a dense, inaccessible style, without a single clearly presented paradigm. Transcriptions, apart from being unconventional, are unreliable throughout.

The only available accessible grammatical sketch written in a modern linguistic frame is "Template:Lang" (1988) by Lionel Galand (1920–2017), a French linguist and berberologist. The sketch is mainly based on the speech of the Ighchan ethnic group of the Anti-Atlas, with comparative notes on Kabyle of Algeria and Tuareg of Niger.

More recent, book-length studies include Jouad (1995, on metrics), Dell & Elmedlaoui (2002 and 2008, on syllables and metrics), El Mountassir (2009, a teaching grammar), Roettger (2017, on stress and intonation) and the many text editions by Stroomer (see also Template:Section link).

Phonology

Stress and intonation

There is currently no evidence of word stress in Tashlhiyt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Vowels

Shilha has three phonemic vowels, with length not a distinctive feature.<ref>Galand (1988, 2.4).</ref> The vowels show a fairly wide range of allophones.<ref>Galand (1988, 2.13).</ref> The vowel /a/ is most often realized as [a] or [æ], and /u/ is pronounced without any noticeable rounding except when adjacent to Template:Lang. The presence of a pharyngealized consonant invites a more centralized realization of the vowel, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA "three", Template:Lang Template:IPA "four", Template:Lang Template:IPA "six" (compare Template:Lang Template:IPA "one", Template:Lang Template:IPA "two", Template:Lang Template:IPA "five").

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Open		Template:IPA link

Additional phonemic vowels occur sporadically in recent loanwords, for example Template:IPA as in Template:Lang "restaurant" (from French).

Transitional vowels and "schwa"

In addition to the three phonemic vowels, there are non-phonemic transitional vowels, often collectively referred to as "schwa". Typically, a transitional vowel is audible following the onset of a vowelless syllable CC or CCC, if either of the flanking consonants, or both, are voiced,<ref>Galand (1988, 2.1).</ref> for example Template:Lang Template:IPA "house", Template:Lang Template:IPA "schoolboy". In the phonetic transcriptions of Stumme (1899) and Destaing (1920, 1940), many such transitional vowels are indicated.

Later authors such as Aspinion (1953), use the symbol Template:Angbr to mark the place where a transitional vowel may be heard, irrespective of its quality, and they also write Template:Angbr where in reality no vowel, however short, is heard, for example Template:Angbr Template:IPA "owner of livestock", Template:Angbr Template:IPA "he's eating". The symbol Template:Angbr, often referred to as "schwa", as used by Aspinion and others, thus becomes a purely graphical device employed to indicate that the preceding consonant is a syllable onset: Template:Lang, Template:Lang.<ref>Cf. Dell and Elmedlaoui (2002:232), who observe the same practice in transcriptions of Moroccan Arabic. The practice is almost never applied entirely consistently. For example, the noun Template:Lang "money" is written as Template:Angbr, with Template:Angbr indicating that Template:Lang is the onset of the last syllable: Template:Lang. But when a vowel follows, as in Template:Lang "my money", Template:Angbr should not be written, because the syllabic structure then becomes Template:Lang. In such cases Aspinion and others routinely write Template:Angbr, with superfluous Template:Angbr.</ref> As Galand has observed, the notation of "schwa" in fact results from "habits which are alien to Shilha".<ref>Galand (1988, 2.1), "le plus souvant les nombreuses notations de [ə] que l'on observe chez les berbèrisants résultent d'habitudes étrangères au chleuh".</ref> And, as conclusively shown by Ridouane (2008), transitional vowels or "intrusive vocoids" cannot even be accorded the status of epenthetic vowels. It is therefore preferable not to write transitional vowels or "schwa", and to transcribe the vowels in a strictly phonemic manner, as in Galand (1988) and all recent text editions.Template:Efn

Consonants

File:Tamazightchelha.ogg

Speech sample in Shilha (Chelha).

The chart below represents Tashlhiyt consonants in IPA, with orthographical representations added between angled brackets when different:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

		Labial	Dental		Post- alveolar	Velar		Uvular		Pharyn- geal	Glottal
			plain	phar.		plain	lab.	plain	lab.
Nasal		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Plosive	voiceless		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
	voiced	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Fricative	voiceless	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
	voiced		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Approximant			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link
Trill			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

Additional phonemic consonants occur sporadically in recent loanwords, for example Template:IPA as in Template:Lang "(my) father" (from Moroccan Arabic), and Template:IPA as in Template:Lang "beach" (from French).Template:Citation needed

Like other Berber languages and Arabic, Tashlhiyt has both pharyngealized ("emphatic") and plain dental consonants.<ref name=":11">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> There is also a distinction between labialized and plain dorsal obstruents.<ref name=":0" /> Consonant gemination or length is contrastive.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Semivowels

The semivowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA have vocalic allophones Template:IPA and Template:IPA between consonants (C_C) and between consonant and pause (C_# and #_C). Similarly, the high vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA can have consonantal allophones Template:IPA and Template:IPA in order to avoid a hiatus. In most dialects,<ref>The speech of the Ighchan, and possibly other Shilha variants, often retains the original semivowels (Galand 1988, 2.9), and this can also be seen in premodern manuscript texts (van den Boogert 1997:249).</ref> the semivowels are thus in complementary distribution with the high vowels, with the semivowels occurring as onset or coda, and the high vowels as nucleus in a syllable. This surface distribution of the semivowels and the high vowels has tended to obscure their status as four distinct phonemes, with some linguists denying phonemic status to /w/ and /j/.<ref>Applegate (1958), Dell and Elmedlaoui (1985, 2002), Ridouane (2008).</ref>

Positing four distinct phonemes is necessitated by the fact that semivowels and high vowels can occur in sequence, in lexically determined order, for example Template:Lang "bee", Template:Lang "ewe" (not *Template:Lang, *Template:Lang). In addition, semivowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA, like other consonants, occur long, as in Template:Lang "wrap", Template:Lang "camel's hump".<ref>This issue is discussed in connection with other languages by Dixon (2010:284).</ref> The assumption of four phonemes also results in a more efficient description of morphology.<ref>Van den Boogert (1997:247–8), with examples.</ref>

In the examples below, Template:Lang and Template:Lang are transcribed phonemically in some citation forms, but always phonetically in context, for example Template:Lang "the daughters of", Template:Lang "he has two daughters".

Gemination and length

Any consonant in Tashlhiyt, in any position within a word, may be simple or geminate. There may be up to two geminates in a stem, and up to three in a word.<ref name=":1" />

The role of gemination varies:<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>

Word with Simple Consonant		Word with Geminate Consonant		Role of Gemination
Tashlhiyt	Translation	Tashlhiyt	Translation
tamda	pond	tamdda	brown buzzard	lexical difference
zdi	to stick (perfect)	zddi	to stick (imperfective)	morphology

Gemination also may occur due to phonological assimilation. For example, the following phrase would be realized as [babllfirma]:<ref name=":1" />

Some consonants are realized differently during morphological gemination; Template:Lang as Template:Lang, Template:Lang as Template:Lang, Template:Lang as Template:Lang, and Template:Lang as Template:Lang.<ref name=":1" />

Syllable structure

Shilha syllable structure has been the subject of a detailed and highly technical discussion by phoneticians. The issue was whether Shilha does or does not have vowelless syllables. According to John Coleman, syllables which are vowelless on the phonemic level have "schwa" serving as vocalic nucleus on the phonetic level. According to Rachid Ridouane on the other hand, Shilha's apparently vowelless syllables are truly vowelless, with all phonemes, vowels as well as consonants, capable of serving as nucleus. The discussion is summed up in Ridouane (2008, with listing of relevant publications), where he conclusively demonstrates that a perfectly ordinary Shilha phrase such as Template:Lang "you took it away" indeed consists of three vowelless syllables [tk.ks.tst:.], each made up of voiceless consonants only, and with voiceless consonants (not "schwa") serving as nucleus. Many definitions of the syllable that have been put forward do not cover the syllables of Shilha.<ref>For example, "Syllable: A phonological unit consisting of a vowel or other unit that can be produced in isolation, either alone or accompanied by one or more less sonorous units" (P.H. Matthews, Oxford concise dictionary of linguistics, Second Edition, Oxford: OUP, 2007). See also Syllable, which contains references to other languages with vowelless syllables.</ref>

Syllable types

The syllable structure of Shilha was first investigated by Dell and Elmedlaoui in a seminal article (1985). They describe how syllable boundaries can be established through what they call "core syllabification". This works by associating a nucleus with an onset, to form a core syllable CV or CC. Segments that are higher on the sonority scale have precedence over those lower on the scale in forming the nucleus in a core syllable, with vowels and semivowels highest on the scale, followed by liquids and nasals, voiced fricatives, voiceless fricatives, voiced stops and voiceless stops. When no more segments are available as onsets, the remaining single consonants are assigned as coda to the preceding core syllable, but if a remaining consonant is identical to the consonant that is the onset of the following syllable, it merges with it to become a long consonant. A morpheme boundary does not necessarily constitute a syllable boundary.

	Template:Mono
Core syllabification	Template:Mono
Coda assignment:	Template:Mono

Comparative diagram of the following:

	Example of Phonological Processes in Shilha
Gloss of text	they.went			to	one		EA-orchard			they.enter			into-it			to-		they.eat			EL-figs				with	EA-grapes
Shilha text	ddan			s	yaw		wurti			kcmn			iss			ad		ccin			tazart				d	waḍil
Core Syll	d	(da)	(ns)		(ya)	w	(wu)	r	(ti)	k	(cm)	(ni)		s	(sa)		(dc)		(ci)	n	(ta)	(za)	r	(td)		(wa)	(ḍi)	l
Coda Assgn.	(d:a)		(ns)		(ya)	(w:ur)			(tik)		(cm)	(ni)		(s:a)			(dc)		(cin)		(ta)	(zar)		(td)		(wa)	(ḍil)
English trans	"they went to an orchard and entered it to eat figs and grapes"

Application of core syllabification produces the following Shilha syllable types:

C V	C: V
C V C	C: V C	C V C:	C: V C:
C C	C: C	C C:	C: C:
C C C	C: C C	C C C:	C: C C:

Shilha syllable structure can be represented succinctly by the formula Template:Not a typo, in which C is any consonant (single/long), and X is any vowel or consonant (single) and with the restriction that in a syllable CXC the X, if it is a consonant, cannot be higher on the resonance scale than the syllable-final consonant, that is, syllables such as [tsk.] and [wrz.] are possible, but not *[tks.] and *[wzr.].

Exceptional syllables of the types X (vowel or single/long consonant) and Template:Not a typo (vowel plus single/long consonant) occur in utterance-initial position:

Template:Lang [r.glt.] "close it!" (syllable C)

Template:Lang [f:.ɣat.] "go out!" (syllable C:)

Template:Lang [a.wi.tid.] "bring it here!" (syllable V)

Template:Lang [ac.kid.] "come here!" (syllable VC)

Another exceptional syllable type, described by Dell and Elmedlaoui (1985), occurs in utterance-final position, when a syllable of the type CC or CC: is "annexed" to a preceding syllable of the type CV or C:V, for example Template:Lang "be silent!" is [fs.samt.] not *[fs.sa.mt.].

Since any syllable type may precede or follow any other type, and since any consonant can occur in syllable-initial or final position, there are no phonotactical restrictions on consonant sequences. This also means that the concept of the consonant cluster is not applicable in Shilha phonology, as any number of consonants may occur in sequence:

[fr.ḥɣs.lm.ɛrf.tn.nk.] (6 syllables, 14 consonants, no vowels)

Metrics

The metrics of traditional Shilha poems, as composed and recited by itinerant bards (Template:Lang), was first described and analyzed by Hassan Jouad (thesis 1983, book 1995; see also Dell and Elmedlaoui 2008). The traditional metrical system confirms the existence of vowelless syllables in Shilha, and Jouad's data have been used by Dell and Elmedlaoui, and by Ridouane to support their conclusions.

The metrical system imposes the following restrictions:

• each line in a poem contains the same number of syllables as all the other lines
• each syllable in a line contains the same number of segments as its counterpart in other lines
• each line contains one particular syllable that must begin or end with a voiced consonant
• each line is divided into feet, with the last syllable in each foot stressed ("lifted") in recitation

Within these restrictions, the poet is free to devise his own metrical form. This can be recorded in a meaningless formula called Template:Lang which shows the number and the length of the syllables, as well as the place of the obligatory voiced consonant (Jouad lists hundreds of such formulae).

The system is illustrated here with a quatrain ascribed to the semi-legendary Shilha poet Sidi Ḥammu (fl. 18th century) and published by Amarir (1987:64): Template:Poem quote Template:Poem quote

Application of Dell and Elmedlaoui's core syllabification reveals a regular mosaic of syllables:

	1	2		3	4	5	6		7	8	9	10		11	12
Line 1	a	t í t		b i	r i	n a	t ú m		l i	l i	n a	t í		m g	r á ḍ
Line 2	a	b: á h		r a	w r	t a	k: á m		t i	l x	l a	h á		n: l	b á z
Line 3	i	g á n		b u	t a	s: r	w á l		t i	g l	x a	t ḿ		ɣ u	ḍ á ḍ
Line 4	a	k°: ń t		y u	t u	k a	n í ɣ		l i	d i	g n	w á		n i	z ú g

The poem is composed in a metre listed by Jouad (1995:283) and exemplified by the formula Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang (the Template:Lang in the last syllable indicates the position of the compulsory voiced consonant).

Grammar

Nouns

On the basis of their morphology, three types of Shilha nouns can be distinguished, two indigenous types and one type of external origin:

• inflected nouns
• uninflected nouns
• unincorporated loans

The relevant morpho-syntactic categories are gender, number and state.<ref>Galand (1988, 4.9–12).</ref>

Inflected nouns

Inflected nouns are by far the most numerous type. These nouns can be easily recognised from their outward shape: they begin with a nominal prefix which has the form Template:Not a typo:

Template:Lang "daytime"

Template:Lang "orphan"

Template:Lang "hound"

Template:Lang "evening"

Template:Lang "marsh mallow (plant)"

Template:Lang "ant"

Inflected nouns distinguish two genders, masculine and feminine; two numbers, singular and plural; and two states, conventionally referred to by their French names as Template:Lang ("free state") and Template:Lang ("annexed state")<ref>Both Galand (1988. 4.11) and Kossmann (2012:67n7) rightly point out that the annexed state in Berber is not to be confused with the construct state of the Semitic languages.</ref> and glossed as EL and EA. Gender and number are all explicitly marked, but historical and synchronic sound changes have in some cases resulted in the neutralization of the difference between EL and EA.

The nominal prefix has no semantic content, i.e. it is not a sort of (in)definite article, although it is probably demonstrative in origin. It is made up of one or both of two elements, a gender prefix and a vocalic prefix. Singular feminine nouns may also have a gender suffix. For example, the noun Template:Lang "bee" has the feminine prefix Template:Lang, the vocalic prefix Template:Lang and the feminine singular suffix Template:Lang added to the nominal stem Template:Lang. While feminine inflected nouns always have the feminine prefix, masculine nouns do not have a gender prefix in the free state (EL); for example Template:Lang "fox" has no gender prefix, but only a vocalic prefix Template:Lang added to the nominal stem Template:Lang.

Gender is thus marked unambiguously, albeit asymmetrically. In just a handful of nouns, the morphological gender does not conform to the grammatical gender (and number): Template:Lang "sheep and goats" is morphologically masculine singular, but takes feminine plural agreement; Template:Lang "eyes" is morphologically masculine plural, but takes feminine plural agreement; Template:Lang "(someone's) children, offspring" is morphologically feminine singular, but takes masculine plural agreement.

The annexed state (EA) is regularly formed by reducing the vocalic prefix to zero and, with masculine nouns, adding the masculine gender prefix Template:Lang:<ref name="Galand 1988, 4.11">Galand (1988, 4.11).</ref>

EL Template:Lang "bee" → EA Template:Lang

EL Template:Lang "fox" → EA Template:Lang

With some nouns, the original vocalic prefix has fused with a stem-initial vowel, to produce an inseparable (and irreducible) vowel:

EL Template:Lang "moon, month" → EA Template:Lang (not *Template:Lang)

EL Template:Lang "sun" → EA Template:Lang (not *Template:Lang)

With feminine nouns that have an inseparable vocalic prefix, the difference between EL and EA is thus neutralized.

While most inflected nouns have a vocalic prefix Template:Lang, some have Template:Lang (in some cases inseparable), and a few have Template:Lang (always inseparable). When a masculine noun has the vocalic prefix Template:Lang (separable or inseparable), the masculine gender prefix Template:Lang changes to Template:Lang. The table below presents an overview (all examples are singular; plurals also distinguish EL and EA):

	Masculine			Feminine
	EL	EA		EL	EA
"fox"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	"bee"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"moon"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	"sun"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"cave"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	"meat"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"ash"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	"salt"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"moufflon"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	"light"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

The EA is not predictable from the shape of the noun, compare:

Template:Lang "hand" → EA Template:Lang

Template:Lang "knee" → EA Template:Lang

The phonological rules on the realization of /w/ and /j/ apply to the EA as well. For example, the EA of Template:Lang "chief" is /w-mɣar/, realized as Template:Lang after a vowel, Template:Lang after a consonant:

Template:Lang "the chief went to see the judge"

Template:Lang "the chief accompanied the judge"

Inflected nouns show a great variety of plural formations, applying one or more of the following processes:

• suffixation (masculine Template:Lang, feminine Template:Lang)
• vowel change (insertion or elision, or ablaut)
• consonant gemination or degemination
• stem extension (+Template:Lang, +Template:Lang, +Template:Lang, +Template:Lang, always in combination with a suffix)

There are also irregular and suppletive plurals. The feminine singular suffix Template:Lang is naturally lost in the plural.

Independent from these processes, the separable vocalic prefix Template:Lang is always replaced with Template:Lang. An inseparable vocalic prefix either remains unchanged, or changes as part of vowel change (but if the vocalic prefix is inseparable in the singular, it may be separable in the plural, as with Template:Lang "dune", and vice versa, as with Template:Lang "dog"; see table below).

Below is a sample of nouns, illustrating various plural formations.

	Singular	Plural	Process(es)
"mountain"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	suffixation
"dune"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, gemination, suffixation
"head"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"ear"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	(irregular plural)
"waterhole"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"document"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	stem extension, suffixation
"day"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, suffixation
"dog"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	(irregular plural)
"forehead"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	stem extension, suffixation
"forearm"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, gemination, suffixation
"scorpion"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, stem extension, suffixation
"witness"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, suffixation
"slave"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, suffixation
"face"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	stem extension, suffixation
"song"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	suffixation
"jackal"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, suffixation
"egg"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	(irregular plural)
"thing"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	stem extension, suffixation
"mouse"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	suffixation
"churn"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, suffixation, degemination
"fireplace"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	stem extension, suffixation
"woman"	Template:Lang	Template:LangTemplate:Efn	suffixation
"porcupine"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"key"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"house"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"ewe"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	(suppletive plural)
"meal"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change
"eye"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	(suppletive plural)
"mountain pass"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	vowel change, gemination
"lioness"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	suffixation, stem extension
"light"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	suffixation

The plural is generally not predictable from the shape of the singular, compare:

Template:Lang "shoe", plural Template:Lang (vowel change and suffix)

Template:Lang "utensil", plural Template:Lang (stem extension and suffix)

Many nouns have more than one plural, for example Template:Lang "knife", plural Template:Lang (vowel change) or Template:Lang (suffixation).

Many Shilha place-names are morphologically inflected nouns:

Template:Lang "Anammeur"

Template:Lang " Irhoreïsene"

Template:Lang "Taroudant"

Template:Lang "Tizegzaouine"

The same is the case with Shilha ethnic names:

Template:Lang "the Ammeln" (singular Template:Lang)

Template:Lang "the Achtouken" (singular Template:Lang)

Template:Lang "the Ilallen" (singular Template:Lang)

Template:Lang "the Isouktan" (singular Template:Lang)

Among the inflected nouns are found many incorporated loans. Examples include:

Template:Lang "wax" (from Latin)

Template:Lang "reeds" (from Punic)

Template:Lang "vegetable plot, orchard" (from early Romance)

Template:Lang "Muslim" (from Arabic)

Template:Lang "letter, missive" (from Arabic)

Uninflected nouns

This is the least common type, which also includes some loans. Examples:

Template:Lang "cuckoo"

Template:Lang "thirst"

Template:Lang "thumb"

Template:Lang "tar" (from Arabic)

Template:Lang "station" (from French)

Template:Lang "index finger"

Template:Lang "couscous"

Template:Lang "cricket"

Template:Lang "carrots"

It is probable that all uninflected nouns were originally masculine. The few that now take feminine agreement contain elements that have been reanalyzed as marking feminine gender, for example Template:Lang "kind of spider" (initial Template:Lang seen as feminine prefix), Template:Lang "bat" (not an Arabic loanword, but final Template:Lang analyzed as the Arabic feminine ending).

Many uninflected nouns are collectives or non-count nouns which do not have a separate plural form. Those that have a plural make it by preposing the pluralizer Template:Lang, for example Template:Lang "stations".

The uninflected noun Template:Lang or Template:Lang "people, humans" is morphologically masculine singular but takes masculine plural agreement.

Names of people and foreign place-names can be seen as a subtype of uninflected nouns, for example Template:Lang (man's name), Template:Lang (woman's name), Template:Lang "Fès", Template:Lang "Portugal". Gender is not transparently marked on these names, but those referring to humans take gender agreement according to the natural sex of the referent (male/masculine, female/feminine).

Unincorporated loans

These are nouns of Arabic origin (including loans from French and Spanish through Arabic) which have largely retained their Arabic morphology. They distinguish two genders (not always unambiguously marked) and two numbers (explicitly marked). A notable feature of these nouns is that they are borrowed with the Arabic definite article, which is semantically neutralized in Shilha:

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration "the pistol" → Shilha Template:Lang "the pistol, a pistol"

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration "the coffin" → Shilha Template:Lang "the coffin, a coffin"

The Arabic feminine ending Template:Transliteration is often replaced with the Shilha feminine singular suffix Template:Lang:

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration → Shilha Template:Lang "fruit"

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration → Shilha Template:Lang "tomb of a saint"

Arabic loans usually retain their gender in Shilha. The exception are Arabic masculine nouns which end in Template:Transliteration; these change their gender to feminine in Shilha, with the final Template:Lang reanalyzed as the Shilha feminine singular suffix Template:Lang:

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration "the prophetic tradition" (masculine) → Shilha Template:Lang (feminine)

Moroccan Arabic Template:Transliteration "death" (masculine) → Shilha Template:Lang (feminine)

Arabic plurals are usually borrowed with the singulars. If the borrowed plural is not explicitly marked for gender (according to Arabic morphology) it has the same gender as the singular:

Template:Lang "domestic animal" (feminine), plural Template:Lang (feminine)

Template:Lang "buckle" (masculine), plural Template:Lang (masculine)

Loanwords whose singular is masculine may have a plural which is feminine, and marked as such (according to Arabic morphology), for example Template:Lang "flag" (masculine), plural Template:Lang (feminine).

Use of the annexed state

The annexed state (EA) of an inflected noun is used in a number of clearly defined syntactical contexts:<ref name="Galand 1988, 4.11"/>

• when the noun occurs as subject in postverbal position:

• after most prepositions (see also Template:Section link):

• after numerals 1 to 10 and after the indefinite numeral (see also Template:Section link):

• after some elements which require a following noun phrase (see also Template:Section link):

Template:Lang "the people of Agadir"

Template:Lang "he with EA-reed: flute player" (EL Template:Lang)

• after Template:Lang "like, such as" (premodern, obsolete in the modern language)

Outside these contexts, the EL is used. Uninflected nouns and unincorporated loans, which do not distinguish state, remain unchanged in these contexts.

Semantics of feminine nouns

The formation of feminine nouns from masculine nouns is a productive process. A feminine noun is formed by adding both the feminine nominal prefix Template:Lang (and, if necessary, a vocalic prefix), and the feminine singular suffix Template:Lang to a masculine noun. The semantic value of the feminine derivation is variable.

For many nouns referring to male and female humans or animals (mainly larger mammals), matching masculine and feminine forms exist with the same nominal stem, reflecting the sex of the referent:

Template:Lang "widower" → Template:Lang "widow"

Template:Lang "Muslim" → Template:Lang "Muslima"

Template:Lang "twin boy" → Template:Lang "twin girl"

Template:Lang "cock, rooster" → Template:Lang "hen"

Template:Lang "lion" → Template:Lang "lioness"

Template:Lang "moufflon" → Template:Lang "female moufflon"

In a few cases there are suppletive forms:

Template:Lang "man, husband" ― Template:Lang "woman, wife"

Template:Lang "buck" ― Template:Lang "goat"

Feminine nouns derived from masculine nouns with inanimate reference have diminutive meaning:

Template:Lang "stone" → Template:Lang "small stone"

Template:Lang "cave" → Template:Lang "hole, lair"

Template:Lang "room" → Template:Lang "small room"

Template:Lang "box" → Template:Lang "little box"

Template:Lang "garden" → Template:Lang "small garden"

Conversely, a masculine noun derived from a feminine noun has augmentative meaning:

Template:Lang "lake" → Template:Lang "large lake"

Template:Lang "house" → Template:Lang "large house"

Template:Lang "fan palm" → Template:Lang "large fan palm"

Feminine nouns derived from masculine collective nouns have singulative meaning:

Template:Lang "maize" → Template:Lang "a cob"

Template:Lang "peppers" → Template:Lang "a pepper"

Template:Lang "aubergines" → Template:Lang "an aubergine"

Template:Lang "matches" → Template:Lang "a match"

Feminine derivations are also used as names of languages, professions and activities:

Template:Lang "Dutchman" → Template:Lang "the Dutch language"

Template:Lang "the French" → Template:Lang "the French language"

Template:Lang "blacksmith" → Template:Lang "blacksmith's profession"

Template:Lang "beggar" → Template:Lang "begging"

Template:Lang "miser" → Template:Lang "avarice"

Template:Lang "(my) brother" → Template:Lang "brotherhood"

There is an overlap here with feminine nouns denoting females:

Template:Lang "Frenchwoman" and "the French language"

Template:Lang "beggarwoman" and "begging"

Nominal deictic clitics

There are three deictic clitics which can follow a noun: proximal Template:Lang "this, these", distal Template:Lang "that, those" (compare Template:Section link) and anaphoric Template:Lang "the aforementioned":

Template:Lang "[as for] this honey, it is not expensive"

Template:Lang "the cold has badly afflicted that goat"

Template:Lang "then he gave the bird to some children to play with"

Personal pronouns

There are three basic sets of personal pronouns:

• independent
• direct object clitics
• suffixes

In addition, there are two derived sets which contain the suffixed pronouns (except in 1st singular):

• indirect object clitics
• possessive complements

Gender is consistently marked on 2nd singular, and on 2nd and 3rd plural. Gender is not consistently marked on 3rd singular and 1st plural. Gender is never marked on 1st singular.

			Independent	Direct object clitics	Suffixes	Indirect object clitics	Possessive complements
1	sg.		Template:Lang	Template:Lang	V-Template:Lang / C-Template:Lang	Template:Lang	V Template:Lang / C Template:Lang
	pl.	m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
		f.	Template:Lang
2	sg.	m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
		f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	pl.	m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	V-Template:Lang / C-Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
		f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	V-Template:Lang / C-Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3	sg.	m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
		f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang / Template:Lang
	pl.	m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
		f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
∅ = zero morpheme

The independent ("overt") pronouns are used to topicalize the subject or the object.

They are also used with certain pseudo-prepositions such as Template:Lang "like", Template:Lang "except":

The direct object clitics are used with transitive verbs:

The 3rd singular feminine variant Template:Lang is used after a dental stop, compare:

Template:Lang "bring her here!" (imperative singular)

Template:Lang "bring her here!" (imperative plural masculine)

The direct object clitics are also used to indicate the subject with pseudo-verbs,<ref>Cf. Kossmann (2012:86–7).</ref> and with the presentative particle Template:Lang "here is, Template:Lang":

Template:Lang (alone me) "I alone"

Template:Lang (all them) "they all, all of them"

Template:Lang (absent him) "he's not there, he's disappeared"

Template:Lang (where her) "where is she?"

Template:Lang (here.is me) "here I am"

The pronominal suffixes are used with prepositions to indicate the object (see Template:Section link), and with a closed set of necessarily possessed kinship terms to indicate possession (see Template:Section link). The plural forms add an infix Template:Lang before the suffix with kinship terms, for example Template:Lang "our father" (never *Template:Lang); this infix also occurs with some prepositions as a free or dialectal variant of the form without the Template:Lang:

Template:Lang or Template:Lang "on them"

Template:Lang "with them" (never *Template:Lang)

The indirect object clitics convey both benefactive and detrimental meaning:

The possessive complements follow the noun (see Template:Section link).

Prepositions

Prepositions can have up to three different forms, depending on the context in which they are used:

• before a noun or demonstrative pronoun
• with a pronominal suffix
• independent in relative clause

The form before nouns and demonstrative pronouns and the independent form are identical for most prepositions, the exception being the dative preposition Template:Lang (independent Template:Lang, Template:Lang).

Before noun or demonstrative pronoun	Independent	With pronominal suffix	Translation equivalents
ar	—	—	terminative: "until, as far as"
d	d	id-, did-	comitative: "with, in the company of; and"
dar	dar	dar-	"at the place of, Template:Lang"
ddu	…	ddaw-, ddawa-	"beneath, under"
f	f	flla-	"on; because of"
gr	…	gra-	"between"
(i)ngr	…	(i)ngra-	"among"
ɣ	ɣ	gi(g)-	locative: "in, at"
i	mi, mu	(indirect object clitics)	dative: "for, to"
n	—	(possessive complements)	possessive: "of"
nnig	…	nniga-	"above"
s	s	is-	instrumental: "with, by means of"
s	s	sr-	allative: "to, toward"
zɣ	zɣ	zgi(g)-	ablative: "from"
— inexistent … unattested, probably inexistent

Most prepositions require a following inflected noun to be in the annexed state (EA) (see Template:Section link). Exceptions are Template:Lang "until", Template:Lang "toward" (in some modern dialects, and in premodern texts) and prepositions borrowed from Arabic (not in the table) such as Template:Lang "after" and Template:Lang "before".

The instrumental and allative prepositions Template:Lang "by means of" (with EA) and Template:Lang "toward" (with EL) were still consistently kept apart in premodern manuscript texts. In most modern dialects they have been amalgamated, with both now requiring the EA, and with the pre-pronominal forms each occurring with both meanings: Template:Lang "toward it" (now also "with it"), Template:Lang "with it" (now also "toward it").

The use of the different forms is illustrated here with the preposition Template:Lang "in":

Two prepositions can be combined:

Spatial relations are also expressed with phrases of the type "on top of":

Template:Lang "on top of the dung heap"

Template:Lang "beside the road"

Template:Lang "in the midst of the river"

The preposition Template:Lang "in" with pronominal suffixes, with all its free and dialectal variants,<ref>Gathered from published texts.</ref> is presented below. The other prepositions display a much smaller variety of forms.

	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	with Template:Lang	irregular
1 sg.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 sg.m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 sg.f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 sg.		Template:Lang		Template:Lang
1 pl.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 pl.m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 pl.f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 pl.m.		Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 pl.f.		Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Numerals

The inherited cardinal numeral system consists of ten numerals (still in active use) and three numeral nouns (now obsolete) for "a tensome", "a hundred" and "a thousand". There is also an indefinite numeral meaning "several, many" or "how many?" which morphologically and syntactically patterns with the numerals 1 to 10. For numbers of 20 and over, Arabic numerals are commonly used.

Numerals 1 to 10, indefinite numeral

These are listed below.<ref name="Galand 1988, 4.11"/> The formation of feminine "one" and "two" is irregular.

	Masculine	Feminine
"one"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"two"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"three"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"four"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"five"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"six"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"seven"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"eight"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"nine"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"ten"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
indefinite	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

The numerals 1 to 10 are constructed with nouns (inflected nouns in the EA), the gender of the numeral agreeing with that of the noun:

Template:Efn The same obtains with the indefinite numeral:

Template:Lang "several/many EA-horses, how many horses?"

Template:Lang "several/many EA-cows, how many cows?"

Numerals Template:Lang, Template:Lang "one" also serve as indefinite article, for example Template:Lang "one Westerner, a Westerner", and they are used independently with the meaning "anyone" (Template:Lang), "anything" (Template:Lang):

Template:Lang "he didn't see anyone"

Template:Lang "I'm not afraid of anything"

The final Template:Lang of masculine Template:Lang "one" and Template:Lang "two" is often assimilated or fused to a following Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang:

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "one EA-day"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "one EA-year"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "a place"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "two EA-years"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "two EA-months"

Teens

The teens are made by connecting the numerals 1 to 9 to the numeral 10 with the preposition Template:Lang "with". In the premodern language, both numerals took the gender of the counted noun, with the following noun in the plural (EA):

In the modern language, fused forms have developed in which the first numeral is always masculine,<ref>Examples in Destaing (1920) sub Template:Lang, etc.</ref> while the following noun is in the singular, and connected with the preposition Template:Lang "of":<ref>Galand (1988, 4.15).</ref>

Tens, hundreds, thousands

There are three inherited nouns to denote "a tensome", "a hundred" and "a thousand". These now seem to be obsolete, but they are well attested in the premodern manuscripts.<ref>See van den Boogert (1997:286–7).</ref> Morphologically, they are ordinary inflected nouns.

	Singular		Plural
	EL	EA	EL	EA
"a tensome"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"a hundred"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"a thousand"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

The tens, hundreds and thousand were formed by combining the numerals 1 to 10 with the numeral nouns:

The numeral nouns are connected with the preposition Template:Lang "of" to a noun, which is most often in the singular:

In the modern language the Arabic tens are used, which have developed a separate feminine form:

Template:Col-begin Template:Col-2 Template:Interlinear Template:Col-2 Template:Interlinear Template:Col-end The numerals between the tens are most frequently made with the Arabic numerals 1 to 10:

The Arabic hundreds and thousands are used in the modern language, taking the places of the original numeral nouns while the original syntax is maintained:

There is also a vigesimal system built on the Arabic numeral Template:Lang "twenty, score",<ref>Aspinion (1953:254).</ref> for example:

Ordinal numerals

First and last are usually expressed with relative forms of the verbs Template:Lang "to be first" and Template:Lang "to be last":

There are also agent nouns derived from these verbs which are apposed to a noun or used independently:

The other ordinals are formed by prefixing masc. Template:Lang, fem. Template:Lang to a cardinal numeral,<ref>Galand (1988, 4.18).</ref> which is then constructed with a plural noun in the usual manner:

The ordinal prefixes is also used with Arabic numerals and with the indefinite numeral:

Template:Lang "the 25th [day] of [the month] Dhū al-Qaʿda"

Template:Lang "the how-manieth time?"

Because four of the numerals 1 to 10 begin with Template:Lang, the geminated Template:Lang that results from the prefixation of Template:Lang, Template:Lang (as in Template:Lang, Template:Lang, etc.) is often generalized to the other numerals: Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, etc.

Verbs

A Shilha verb form is basically a combination of a person-number-gender (PNG) affix and a mood-aspect-negation (MAN) stem.

Sample verb

The workings of this system are illustrated here with the full conjugation of the verb Template:Lang "to give". The perfective negative goes with the negation Template:Lang "not". The imperfective goes with the preverbal particle Template:Lang (except usually the imperative, and the relative forms).

	Aorist	Perfective	Perfective negative	Imperfective
MAN stem→	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
1 sg.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 sg.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 sg.m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 sg.f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
1 pl.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 pl.m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2 pl.f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 pl.m.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3 pl.f.	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
Imperative
2 sg.	Template:Lang			Template:Lang
2 pl.m.	Template:Lang			Template:Lang
2 pl.f.	Template:Lang			Template:Lang
Relative
sg.		Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
pl.		Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

The verb Template:Lang "give" has the full complement of four different MAN stems:

• Aorist Template:Lang ― Template:Lang in 1st, 2nd and 3rd singular, 1st plural, and the imperatives, but Template:Lang in 2nd and 3rd plural
• Perfective Template:Lang ― Template:Lang in 1st and 2nd singular, but Template:Lang with the other forms
• Perfective negative Template:Lang ― all forms
• Imperfective Template:Lang (an irregular formation) ― all forms

Person-number-gender affixes

There are two basic sets of PNG affixes, one set marking the subject of ordinary verb forms, and another set marking the subject of imperatives.

Two suffixes (singular Template:Lang, plural Template:Lang) are added to the 3rd singular and masculine 3rd plural masculine verb forms respectively to make relative forms (also known as "participles"), as in Template:Lang "who gives", Template:Lang "who give".Template:Efn

1 sg		…	Template:Lang
2 sg.	Template:Lang	…	Template:Lang
3 sg.m.	Template:Lang	…
3 sg.f.	Template:Lang	…
1 pl.	Template:Lang	…
2 pl.m.	Template:Lang	…	Template:Lang
2 pl.f.	Template:Lang	…	Template:Lang
3 pl.m.		…	Template:Lang
3 pl.f.		…	Template:Lang
Imperative
2 sg.		…	Template:Lang
2 pl.m.		…	Template:Lang
2 pl.f.		…	Template:Lang
Relative
3 sg.	Template:Lang	…	Template:Lang
3 pl.		…	Template:Lang

Mood-aspect-negation stems

A few verbs have just one MAN stem. The majority of verbs have two, three or four different MAN stems.<ref>A fifth MAN stem, the Imperfective negative, is sporadically found in manuscript texts (see Van den Boogert 1997:270).</ref> The Aorist stem serves as the citation form of a verb. The list below offers an overview of MAN stem paradigms. Around 15 paradigms of non-derived verbs can be recognized, based on the formation of the Perfective and the Perfective negative. Further subdivisions could be made on the basis of the formations of the Imperfective. All sections in the list contain a selection of verbs, except sections 12, 14, and 15, which contain a full listing.

		Aorist	Perfective	Perfective negative	Imperfective
1	"laugh"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"bark"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
2	"accompany"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"sit"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"be crazy"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
3	"enter"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"graze"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"mention"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"ascend, climb"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"open, be open"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
4	"fall"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"hit"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
5	"break, be broken"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"eat"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"give"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"show, explain"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"drink"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"call"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"be; put"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
6	"sew"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"go"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"go"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"divide"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
7	"be better"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"fly"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"give back"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"inherit"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
8	"take"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"steal"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"help"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"run"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
9	"find"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"come"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
10	"flay"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"contain"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
11	"hold, possess"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"take away"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"go out"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
12	"die"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
13	"be afraid"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"be first, precede"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
14	"possess"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"want"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
15	"exist"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
	"say"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Uses of MAN stems

The table below is adapted from Kossmann (2012:40, table 2.12 Uses of MAN stems in Figuig Berber).

MAN stem	Main context in which MAN stem is used	Examples	Translation
Aorist	imperative consecutive	Template:Lang Template:Lang	"take!" "(and then) he took"
Template:Lang + Aorist	non-realized	Template:Lang	"that he take"
Template:Lang + Aorist	future	Template:Lang	"he will take"
Template:Lang + Aorist	negated consecutive	Template:Lang	"(and then) he didn't take"
Template:Lang + Template:Lang + Aorist	negated imperative	Template:Lang	"don't take!"
Template:Lang + Template:Lang + Aorist	negated future	Template:Lang	"he will not take"
Perfective	past action state (including resultant state)	y-umẓ i-rɣa	"he took" "it was hot, it is hot"
Template:Lang + Perfective Negative	negated past action negated state	Template:Lang Template:Lang	"he did not take" "it was not hot, it is not hot"
Imperfective	habitual/iterative imperative	Template:Lang	"always take!"
Template:Lang + Imperfective	habitual/iterative imperative	Template:LangTemplate:Efn	"you must always take"
Template:Lang + Template:Lang + Imperfective	negated habitual/iterative imperative	Template:Lang	"you should never take"
Template:Lang + Imperfective	simultaneous action (progressive) habitual, iterative, durative	Template:Lang	"he is taking, he always takes"
Template:Lang + Template:Lang + Imperfective	negated simultaneous action negated habitual, iterative, durative	ur a y-tt-amẓ, ur aɣ i-tt-amẓTemplate:Efn	"he is not taking, he never takes"

Stative verbs

Shilha has around twenty stative verbs which are still recognizable as a separate type of verb on the basis of their MAN stem paradigms. In earlier stages of the language, these verbs had their own separate set of PNG markers, which are sporadically found in premodern manuscripts:<ref>See van den Boogert (1997:271–272). There are many other stative verbs which do not belong to this separate type, such as Template:Lang "to be hot", Template:Lang "to be distant", and all stative verbs borrowed from Arabic such as Template:Lang "to be sweet".</ref>

Template:Lang "the night, it is long" (cf. modern Template:Lang)

Template:Lang "medicines are bitter" (cf. modern Template:Lang)

In the modern language, these verbs take the regular PNG markers. Only the original singular relative form without prefix Template:Lang may still be encountered, for example Template:Lang or Template:Lang (mountain which.is.big) "big mountain". Stative verbs do not have a separate Perfective negative form. The table shows a selection of stative verbs.

	Aorist	Perfective	Imperfective
"be few"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"be many"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"be small, young"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"be big, old"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"be yellow"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"be red"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Verbal deictic clitics

There are two deictic clitics which are used with verbs to indicate movement toward or away from the point of reference: centripetal Template:Lang "hither" and centrifugal Template:Lang "thither":

The use of these clitics is compulsory (idiomatic) with certain verbs. For example, the verb Template:Lang "come" almost always goes with the centripetal particle, and Template:Lang "find" with the centrifugal clitic:

When the verbal deictic clitics occur after an object pronoun, they change to Template:Lang and Template:Lang:

Possession

Within a noun phrase

A possessive construction within a noun phrase is most frequently expressed as Possessee Template:Lang Possessor. The preposition Template:Lang "of" requires a following inflected noun to be in the annexed state. This kind of possessive construction covers a wide range of relationships, including both alienable and inalienable possession, and most of them not involving actual ownership:

Template:Lang "Daoud's waterhole"

Template:Lang "the entrance of the grain silo"

Template:Lang "Brahim's children"

Template:Lang "pots of clay"

Template:Lang "a little salt"

Template:Lang "the price of maize"

Template:Lang "after lunch"

Template:Lang "the city of Istanbul"

Template:Lang "the rising of the sun"

Template:Lang "the road to school"

Template:Lang "the religion of the Jews"

Template:Lang "the story of Joseph"

Many such possessive constructions are compounds, whose meaning cannot be deduced from the ordinary meaning of the nouns:

Template:Lang "road of straw: the Milky Way"

Template:Lang "mouth of jackal: a length measure"Template:Efn

Template:Lang "ravine of lice: nape, back of the neck"

Template:Lang "needle of hedges: kind of bird"

The possessor can itself be a possessee in a following possessive construction:

Template:Lang "the era of the reign of Moulay Lahcen"

Template:Lang "the time of the giving birth of the sheep and goats"

As a rule, the preposition Template:Lang assimilates to, or fuses with, a following Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang:Template:Efn

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "the language of the Arabs"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "horse-doctor"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "the season of rain"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "the king of the Muslims"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "orange tree"

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "maize of Egypt"

The possessor can also be expressed with a pronominal possessive complement. This consists of a pronominal suffix added to the preposition, which then takes the shape Template:Lang (see Template:Section link). The form of the 1st singular possessive complement is anomalous: Template:Lang after a vowel, and Template:Lang after a consonant (or, in some dialects, Template:Lang):

Template:Lang "my head"

Template:Lang "my hands"

Template:Lang "my leg"

Template:Lang "your (sg.m.) pouch"

Template:Lang "your (sg.f.) affairs"

Template:Lang "his clothes"

Template:Lang "her opinion"

Template:Lang "its smell"

Template:Lang "our neighbours"

Template:Lang "your (pl.m.) occupation"

Template:Lang "your (pl.f.) friends"

Template:Lang "their (m.) livelihood"

Template:Lang "their (f.) locks of hair"

Within a clause

There are two ways to express possession within a clause. The most common way is to use the "exist with" construction:

The verb Template:Lang "exist" (perfective Template:Lang) is usually omitted, leaving a verbless clause:

Alternatively, the verb Template:Lang "hold, possess" can be used:

In addition, there is the verb Template:Lang "possess" (perfective Template:Lang), whose use is restricted to (inalienable) part-whole relationships and kinship relationships:

In al its usages Template:Lang can be replaced with Template:Lang or the "exist with" construction, but not the other way around:

Possessed nouns

These are a subtype of uninflected nouns. As with proper names, gender is not transparently marked on possessed nouns, which take gender agreement according to the natural sex of the referent. Plurals are either suppletive or made with the preposed pluralizer Template:Lang. Most possessed nouns are consanguinal kinship terms which require a possessive suffix (the table contains a selection).

	Singular	Plural	Remarks
"the mother(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"the father(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"the daughter(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"the son(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	the plural is a pl.m. inflected noun "sons, offspring"
"the sister(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	compound, lit. "the daughter(s) of the mother of"
"the brother(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	compound, lit. "the son(s) of the mother of"
"grandmother: the mother of the mother of"	Template:Lang		Arabic loan
"grandfather: the father of the mother of"	Template:Lang		compound
"grandmother: the mother of the father of"	Template:Lang		compound
"grandfather: the father of the father of"	Template:Lang		Arabic loan

These kinship terms cannot occur without pronominal suffix. Example:

Template:Lang	"my sister"
Template:Lang	"your (sg.m.) sister"
Template:Lang	"your (sg.f.) sister"
Template:Lang	"her sister, his sister"
Template:Lang	"our sisters"
Template:Lang	"your (pl.m.) sisters"
Template:Lang	"your (pl.f.) sisters"
Template:Lang	"their (m.) sisters"
Template:Lang	"their (f.) sisters"

If these nouns are part of an NP-internal possessive construction, possession must be indicated twice:

The suffix must also be added when possession is expressed in a clause:

Some kinship terms are not possessed nouns but inflected nouns which take possessive complements (see examples above).

Another group of possessed nouns require a following noun phrase, occurring only in an NP-internal possessive phrase. A following inflected noun must be in the EA.

	Singular	Plural
"the son(s) of, native(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
"the female native(s) of"	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

These four possessed nouns occur as first element in compound kinship terms (see above; Template:Lang then becomes Template:Lang in Template:Lang "the brother of"). They also serve to indicate descent, origin and ethnicity:

Template:Lang "Ahmed son of Moussa" (name of a famous saint)<ref>The possessed noun Template:Lang, the feminine counterpart of Template:Lang, is not used in genealogies; thus, Fadma the daughter of Moussa is Template:Lang, not *Template:Lang (cf. Aspinion 1953:30).</ref>

Template:Lang "member of the Aït Brayyim ethnic group"

Template:Lang "native of outside: a foreigner"

Template:Lang "a native of Taroudant"

Template:Lang "the natives of Aguercif"

Template:Lang "native woman of Aglou"

Template:Lang "the women of Tafraout"

When Template:Lang is followed by another (phonemic) Template:Lang the result is Template:Lang:

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "native of Ouijjane" (also surname: Gouijjane)

Template:Lang → Template:Lang "a man, son of a man: a man of virtue"

Template:Lang occurs in many Shilha ethnonyms:

Template:Lang "the Sons of Boubker" (Aït Boubker), singular Template:Lang

Template:Lang "the Sons of Ouafka" (Aït Ouafka), singular Template:Lang → Template:Lang

Proprietive and privative elements

The proprietive elements masc. Template:Lang "he with, he of" and fem. Template:Lang "she with, she of" are borrowed from Arabic (original meaning "father of", "mother of"). They are used as formative elements and require a following inflected noun to be in the annexed state. The plural is formed with the pluralizer Template:Lang:

In many cases, Template:Lang fuses with a following nominal prefix:

The feminine Template:Lang is encountered less frequently:

The privative elements masc. Template:Lang "he without" and fem. Template:Lang "she without" are made up of a gender prefix (masculine Template:Lang, feminine Template:Lang) and an element Template:Lang which is probably related to the negation Template:Lang "not". They do not require the annexed state, and should probably be translated as "who does not have", with the following noun phrase as object:

Lexicon

Template:See also Tashlhiyt, like other Berber languages, has a small number of loanwords from Phoenician-Punic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> There are also Latin loans from the time of the Roman empire, although the region in which Tashlhiyt is spoken was never in the empire's territory.<ref name=":50">Template:Cite book</ref>

Most Tashlhiyt loanwords are Arabic in origin. Maarten Kossmann estimates that about 6% of the basic Tashlhiyt lexicon is borrowed from Arabic; Salem Chaker estimates that 25% of the stable lexicon overall is borrowed from Arabic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Although some nouns denoting typically Islamic concepts such as Template:Lang "mosque", Template:Lang "ritual prayer", Template:Lang "fasting", which certainly belong to the very oldest layer of Arabic loans,<ref>Van den Boogert and Kossmann (1997).</ref> are fully incorporated into Shilha morphology, many equally central Islamic concepts are expressed with unincorporated nouns, for example Template:Lang "Islam", Template:Lang "pilgrimage to Mecca", Template:Lang "alms tax". It is possible that during the early stages of islamization such concepts were expressed with native vocabulary or with earlier, non-Arabic loans.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> One such term which has survived into the modern era is Template:Lang "ewe for slaughter on the (Islamic) Feast of Immolation",Template:Efn from Template:Lang,Template:Efn the Latinized name of the Jewish festival of Passover (Pesaḥ) or, more specifically, of the paschal lamb (qorbān Pesaḥ) which is sacrificed during the festival.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Another example is Template:Lang "sins", obsolete in the modern language, but attested in a premodern manuscript text,<ref>Aẓnag (late 16th century), Template:Lang, in the phrase Template:Lang "the pains of childbirth are washing away the sins".</ref> whose singular Template:Lang is borrowed from Romance (cf. Spanish Template:Lang, Latin Template:Lang; modern Shilha uses Template:Lang "sins", from Arabic).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Tashlhiyt numerals 5 to 9 may be loanwords, although their origin is unclear; they do not seem to originate from Phoenician-Punic or Arabic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Additionally, all Tashlhiyt numerals agree in gender, whereas Arabic numerals do not.<ref name=":17">Template:Cite book</ref>

Secret languages

Destaing<ref>Destaing (1920:21).</ref> mentions a secret language (argot) called Template:Lang or Template:Lang which is spoken by "some people of Souss, in particular the descendants of Sidi Ḥmad u Musa." He quotes an example: Template:Lang "do you speak the secret language?"

Two secret languages used by Shilha women are described by Lahrouchi and Ségéral. They are called Template:Lang (cf. Shilha Template:Lang "deaf-mute person") and Template:Lang or Template:Lang. They employ various processes, such as reduplication, to disguise the ordinary language.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Cited works and further reading

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Various online articles

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• John Coleman, "Epenthetic vowels in Tashlhiyt Berber" (includes sound samples)

External links

• World atlas of language structures (WALS) – Tashlhiyt (data not entirely accurate)

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

EL:free state ("état libre") EA:annexed state ("état d'annexion") ORD:ordinal numeral

<section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>