Pharyngealization
Template:Short description Template:Infobox IPA Template:Infobox IPA Pharyngealization or pharyngealisation is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound.
IPA symbols
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pharyngealization can be indicated by one of two methods:
- A tilde or swung dash (IPA Number 428) is written through the base letter (typographic overstrike). It is the older and more generic symbol. It indicates velarization, uvularization or pharyngealization, as in Template:IPA, the guttural equivalent of Template:IPA.
- The symbol Template:Angbr IPA (IPA Number 423) – a superscript variant of Template:IPA, the voiced pharyngeal approximant – is written after the base letter. It indicates specifically a pharyngealized consonant, as in Template:IPA, a pharyngealized Template:IPA.
Other systems
In many romanisation system like for Arabic, ◌. is used. For example, ṭ is used for the country of Template:Transliteration (in Arabic script Template:Lang).
Computing codes
Since Unicode 1.1, there have been two similar superscript characters: IPA Template:Angbr IPA (Template:Unichar) and Semiticist Template:Angbr IPA (Template:Unichar). U+02E4 is formally a superscript Template:Angbr IPA (Template:Unichar, = reversed glottal stop), and in the Unicode charts looks like a simple superscript Template:Angbr IPA, though in some fonts it looks like a superscript reversed lower-case letter glottal stop Template:Angbr IPA. U+02C1 is a typographic alternative to Template:Angbr (Template:Unichar); which is used to transliterate the Semitic consonant ayin and which = reversed Template:Angbr, which itself transliterates the glottal Semitic consonants aleph and hamza. In the Unicode charts U+02C1 looks like a reversed Template:Angbr IPA (Template:Unichar), which is used in the IPA for glottalization. There is no parallel Unicode distinction for modifier glottal stop. The IPA Handbook<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> lists U+02E4 as the Unicode equivalent of IPA Number 423, the dedicated IPA symbol for pharyngealization.
The superimposed tilde is assigned Unicode character U+0334. This was originally intended to combine with other letters to represent pharyngealization. However, that usage is now deprecated (though still functional), and several precomposed letters have been adopted to replace it. These are the labial consonants Template:Angbr IPA and the coronal consonants Template:Angbr IPA.
| Character | ʕ | ˤ | ˁ | ʿ | ̴ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unicode name | Template:Allcaps | Template:Allcaps | Template:Allcaps | Template:Allcaps | Template:Allcaps | |||||
| Character encoding | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex |
| 661 | 0295 | 740 | 02E4 | 705 | 02C1 | 703 | 02BF | 820 | 0334 | |
| Numeric character reference | ʕ | ʕ | ˤ | ˤ | ˁ | ˁ | ʿ | ʿ | ̴ | ̴ |
Usage
Ubykh, an extinct Northwest Caucasian language spoken in Russia and Turkey, used pharyngealization in 14 pharyngealized consonants. Tsilhqotʼin has pharyngealized consonants that trigger pharyngealization of vowels. Many languages (such as Salishan, Sahaptian) in the Plateau culture area of North America also have pharyngealization processes that are triggered by pharyngeal or pharyngealized consonants, which affect vowels.
The Tuu/"Khoisan" language Taa (or !Xóõ) has pharyngealized vowels that contrast phonemically with voiced, breathy and epiglottalized vowels.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> That feature is represented in the orthography by a tilde under the respective pharyngealized vowel. In Tuu languages, epiglottalized vowels are phonemic.
For many languages, pharyngealization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. Dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar, but clear l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
Arabic and Syriac use secondary uvularization, which is generally not distinguished from pharyngealization, for the "emphatic" coronal consonants.Template:Citation needed
Examples of pharyngealized consonants
(Uvularized consonants are not distinguished.)
Stops
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar stop Template:Audio-IPA (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic, Kurmanji, Mizrahi and Classical Hebrew)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar stop Template:Audio-IPA (in Chechen, Tamazight and Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless bilabial stop Template:IPA (in Kurmanji, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiced bilabial stop Template:IPA (in Chechen, Ubykh, Siwa, Shihhi Arabic and Iraqi Arabic, allophonic in Adyghe and Kabardian)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular stop Template:IPA (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular stop Template:IPA (in Tsakhur)
- pharyngealized glottal stop Template:IPA (in Shihhi Arabic; allophonic in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless velar plosive Template:IPA (in Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced velar plosive Template:IPA (in SoraniTemplate:Sfnp)
Fricatives
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar sibilant Template:Audio-IPA (in Chechen, Kurmanji, Arabic, Classical Hebrew and Northern Berber)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar sibilant Template:Audio-IPA (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar fricative Template:IPA (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar fricative Template:IPA (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless dental fricative Template:IPA (in Zenaga, Shawiya and Shehri)
- pharyngealized voiced dental fricative Template:Audio-IPA (in Arabic Template:Lang, and as Template:IPA, a variant pronunciation in Mehri)
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar lateral fricative Template:Audio-IPA
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative Template:Audio-IPA (in Soqotri, a variant pronunciation in Mehri, and postulated for Classical Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless labiodental fricative Template:IPA (in SoraniTemplate:Sfnp)
- pharyngealized voiced labiodental fricative Template:IPA (in Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative Template:IPA (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, Archi and Bzyb Abkhaz)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular fricative Template:IPA (in Ubykh, Tsakhur and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiceless glottal fricative Template:IPA (in Tsakhur)
Affricates
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar affricate Template:IPA (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar affricate Template:IPA (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar affricate Template:IPA (in Chechen and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar affricate Template:IPA (in Chechen)
Trills
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar trill Template:IPA (in Kabyle, Chechen and Siwa)
Nasals
- pharyngealized bilabial nasal Template:IPA (in Chechen, Ubykh, Moroccan Darija, and Iraqi Arabic)
- pharyngealized alveolar nasal Template:IPA (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized uvular nasal Template:IPA (in Kusunda)
Approximants
- pharyngealized labialized velar approximant Template:IPA (in Shihhi Arabic, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant Template:IPA (in Kabyle, Chechen, English, and Northern Standard Dutch)
- pharyngealized labialized postalveolar approximant Template:IPA (an Template:IPAc-en variant in American English)
- pharyngealized velar approximant Template:IPA, with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum (in some dialects of American English and Dutch)
Examples of pharyngealized vowels
- pharyngealized open-mid back rounded vowel Template:IPA in Northern Standard Dutch
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in the Air Tamajeq language
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in Even
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in Tsakhur
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in Udi
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in Mambay (Mangbai)
- pharyngealized vowels Template:IPA in ǃXóõ
See also
- Glottalization
- Creaky voice (Laryngealization)
- Pharyngeal consonant
- Strident vowel