Udder
Template:Short description Template:For
An udder is an organ formed of two or four mammary glands on the females of dairy animals and ruminants such as cattle, goats, and sheep.<ref name="Frandson2013">Template:Citation</ref> An udder is equivalent to the breast in primates and other mammals. The udder is a single mass hanging beneath the animal, consisting of pairs of mammary glands with protruding teats. In cattle, camels and deer, there are normally two pairs, in sheep and goats, there is one pair, and in some animals, there are many pairs. In animals with udders, the mammary glands develop on the milk line near the groin. Mammary glands that develop on the chest (such as in primates and elephants) are generally referred to as breasts.<ref name="Frandson2013"/>
Udder care and hygiene in cows is important in milking, aiding uninterrupted and untainted milk production, and preventing mastitis. Products exist to soothe the chapped skin of the udder. This helps prevent bacterial infection, and reduces irritation during milking by the cups, and so the cow is less likely to kick the cups off. It has been demonstrated that incorporating nutritional supplements into diet, including vitamin E, is an additional method of improving udder health and reducing infection.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Etymology
Udder has been attested in Middle English as Template:Lang or Template:Lang (also as Template:Lang, Template:Lang), and in Old English as Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was evolved from the Proto-Germanic reconstructed root *eudrą or *ūdrą, which in turn descended from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ówHdʰr̥ (“udder”). It is cognate with Saterland Frisian Template:Lang (“udder”), Dutch Template:Lang (“udder”), German Template:Lang (“udder”), Swedish Template:Lang (“udder”), Icelandic Template:Lang (“udder”), Vedic Sanskrit ऊधर् (ū́dhar), Ancient Greek Template:Lang (Template:Lang), and Latin Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Culinary Use
The udder, or elder in Ireland, Scotland and northern England, of a slaughtered cow was in times past prepared and consumed.<ref>The Words We Use, Diarmaid O Muirithe, irishtimes.com, 11 November 2000</ref> In other countries, like Italy, parts of Pakistan, Kenya, and some South American countries, cow udder is still consumed in dishes like the traditional Template:Lang and ubres asada.
Microbial Ecology
The udder microbiome of cows can act as a defense mechanism for preventing infection and can impact the production and quality of milk. The presence of Staphylococcus – specifically S. aureus, S. uberis, and S. agalactiae – on the teat apex can lead to intramammary infections (IMI) if it migrates to the teat canal and the mammary gland.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These infections trigger the mammary gland immune response<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and can lead to decreased milk production.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The 4 major phyla associated with a healthy teat apex include Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> Some of these non-aureus staphylococci (NAS) can release bacteriocins that inhibit the growth of S. aureus and prevent infection<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> whereas the microbiome of dairy cows with IMI can be categorized with an increased prevalence of Staphylococcus and decreased diversity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> IMIs can also impact the quality and composition of the proteins found in milk.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The loss of milk production and increased waste of milk due to lower quality make IMIs one of the leading causes of economic losses in the milk industry.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Environmental factors can play a role in shaping the diversity and composition of these communities. The udder skin is completely exposed to the both indoor and outdoor environments and comes into direct contact with areas such as bedding, milking equipment, and feces.<ref name=":0" /> These bacteria can then seed raw milk potential pathogens that affect safety and spoilage organisms that affect quality.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, S. aureus is naturally found on the external teat skin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Listeria monocytogenes is commonly found in the environment and is associated with improper cleaning and sanitation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Pseudomonas spp. are known spoilage organisms in milk and are often found in environments such as soil. While pasteurization can eliminate or reduce these bacteria, high initial bacterial loads could allow some of these to persist post-pasteurization. Effective cleaning and sanitation of the cow’s housing environment as well as the udder surface can help prevent contamination of raw milk through the udder surface.<ref name=":1" /> Antimicrobials can also be used to prevent growth, however, consideration is needed before use to prevent the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in these pathogens.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>