Yahgan language

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Yahgan or Yagán (also spelled Yaghan, Jagan, Iakan, and also known as Yámana, Háusi Kúta, or Yágankuta) is an extinct language that is one of the indigenous languages of Tierra del Fuego, spoken by the Yahgan people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is regarded as a language isolate,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> although some linguists have attempted to relate it to Kawésqar and Chono.

Yahgan was also spoken briefly on Keppel Island in the Falkland Islands at a missionary settlement. In 2017, Chile's National Corporation of Indigenous Development convened a workshop to plan an educational curriculum in the Yahgan language, and in June 2019 it planned to inaugurate a language nest in the community of Bahía Mejillones, near Puerto Williams.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> The government also funded the publication of a "concise and illustrated dictionary" of the Yahgan language.<ref name=":0" />

Following the death of Cristina Calderón (1928–2022) of Villa Ukika on Navarino Island, Chile, no native speakers of Yahgan remain.<ref name=extinct>Fallece a los 93 años Cristina Calderón, la última hablante del idioma Yagán Template:In lang</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Phonology

Vowels

There are three analyses of the phonological system of Yahgan, which differ in many details from one another. The oldest analysis is Thomas Bridges' dictionary (1894) based on the English Phonotypic Alphabet; from the middle of the 20th century by Haudricourt (1952) and Holmer (1953); and towards the end of the 20th century, by Guerra Eissmann (1990), Salas y Valencia (1990), and Aguilera (2000).

Front Central Back
Close Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Mid Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Open Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink

All vowels are long in stressed syllables. Vowel Template:IPA is the most frequent. It may be pronounced as a schwa Template:IPA in syllables in pretonic or post-tonic position.<ref name="Salas, Adalberto 1990 pp. 147">Salas, Adalberto, y Valencia, Alba (1990): "El fonetismo del yámana o yagán. Una nota en lingüística de salvataje". Revista de Lingüística Teórica y Applicada, Concepción, vol. 28, pp. 147–169 (in Spanish).</ref> In final tonic syllables, vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA may become a diphthong.<ref name="Salas, Adalberto 1990 pp. 147"/> Vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA are very unstable in final unaccented syllables, alternating with Template:IPA and Template:IPA respectively.<ref name="Salas, Adalberto 1990 pp. 147"/>

Consonants

Labial Alveolar Post-
alveolar 		Velar Glottal
Nasal Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Plosive Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Fricative Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Rhotic Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Approximant Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink

Morphophonology

Yahgan shows a number of sandhi effects on consonants and vowels. For instance, the terminal Template:Lang of Template:Lang 'to see, recognize' when affixed by Template:Lang 'to have trouble/difficulty doing' becomes Template:Lang:- of Template:Lang 'have trouble recognizing/seeing'

In syllables reduced through morphophonetic processes, terminal vowels (Template:Lang, Template:Lang) of original bisyllables will often drop (except for Template:Lang, which tends to remain, leaving previous material unaffected), and resultant final stops will fricativize (r becomes sh). Aside from losing stress, any vowels preceding these shifted consonants will often shift from tense to lax. Ex. Template:Lang 'for self, with one's own' > Template:Lang. Template:Lang 'to take, convey' > Template:Lang, and so on. Present tense usually results in the dropping of the final vowel of the infinitival form of the verb and associated changes as above, as does affixation by many, but not all, further derivational and inflectional suffixes beginning with stops, affricates, and other consonants. Ex. Template:Lang 'to fight' Template:Lang 'to fight confusedly'.

The sounds m, n, and l are particularly labile in some environments. Template:Lang 'to eat' Template:Lang 'to leave off eating' (not Template:Lang). n from Template:Lang 'state' is often reduced to -V: when one would expect -Vn-. lt can disappear entirely before some consonants. Template:Lang 'to drink', Template:Lang or Template:Lang 'to drink'. Initial h- in roots and affixes drops in many instances. Ex. Template:Lang 'to float, be in boat'+ Template:Lang 'to walk, go' gives Template:Lang. ng (as in English 'hang') is purely morphophonetic, from terminal n before a velar consonant. Many instances of m before a labial consonant are similarly motivated. w after a passive/reflexive prefix Template:Lang often drops. w often vocalizes to u: or o: or drops (depending on preceding material): Template:Lang causative plus Template:Lang 'work' is Template:Lang 'make work'. y is also relatively labile- after reduced Template:Lang > Template:Lang the suffix Template:Lang 'to leave off' becomes Template:Lang. In combination with preceding -a y often vocalizes: Template:Lang 'woman' plus Template:Lang 'plural animates/people' becomes Template:Lang.

Stress

In recent analyses of the speech of remaining speakers, word stress was felt to be nondistinctive. However, in the mid-19th century Yahga Strait dialect (which is likely not the ancestor of the surviving one) word stress was distinctive at least at the level of the individual morpheme, with stress shifting in regular patterns during word formation. Certain otherwise identical word roots are distinguishable by different stress marking. No information is available about phrase or clause level stress phenomena from the Yahga dialect.

Some roots, particularly those with doubled consonants, exhibit stress on both vowels flanking the doublet. Diphthongs appear to attract stress when they are morphophonetic in origin, sometimes removing it from vowels on both sides that would otherwise be stressed. The first vowel -V- (influenced by the preceding terminal root vowel) in Template:Lang '(be) in a state' also appears to attract stress, while Template:Lang 'attain' repels stress to the left. Thus the combination Template:Lang 'get into a state' is harmonious. Diphthongal attraction often trumps Template:Lang, drawing stress further left, while two successive diphthongs often have the stress on the rightmost one (counterintuitively). Syllables reduced morphophonetically generally lose whatever stress they might have carried. The vast majority of 'irregular' stress renderings in Bridges' original dictionary manuscript seem to arise from just these five sources.

It may be that these effects help to preserve morpheme boundary and identity information. For instance, given the importance of derivation of verbs from nouns and adjectives using Template:Lang and Template:Lang, shifted stress allows one to differentiate these morphemes from lexical Template:Lang (common enough) and those Template:Lang's that are part of lexical roots (also relatively common). Template:Lang itself will often lose stress and reduce to a tense vowel before other suffixes, leaving the shifting as a hint of its underlying presence.

Stress can also differentiate otherwise identical voice morpheme strings: Template:Lang causative reflexive (get someone else to do/make one) from Template:Lang(1) the causative of making oneself seem, or pretend to be in some state, and Template:Lang(2) the circumstantial (Template:Lang allomorph before m-) of same (i.e. to seem/pretend at any specified time or place, with any particular tools, for any reasons, etc.). Circumstantial T has different allomorphs- some having following stressable vowel, others not- this also complicates matters for the learner but may also help disentangle morpheme boundaries for the listener.

Sound symbolism

There appears to be a great deal of remnant sound symbolism in the Yahgan lexicon. For example, many roots ending in -m encode as part of their senses the notion of a texturally softened positive curve (similar to -mp in such words as lump or hump in English), while an -l in similar position often shows up when the reference is to bloody core parts, often out from once safe confinement inside the body. Many roots with initial ch- refer to repeated, spiny extrusions, final -x to dry, hard-edged, or brittle parts, and so on.

The historical sources of these patterns cannot be known for sure, but it may be possible that there was at one time a shape and texture classifier system of some sort behind them. Such systems are rather common in South American languages.

There is little direct onomatopoeia recorded by Bridges, despite descriptions of highly animated imitative behavior on the part of speakers being recorded in the late 19th century. Several bird names are perhaps reduplications of calls (or other nonvocal behavior), and there are a couple of imitative cries and sound words. Most words denoting sounds end in an unproductive verb-deriving suffix Template:Lang (in at least one case Template:Lang, and r is known to alternate with sh), which may be derived from the Yahgan root Template:Lang 'voice, language, uttered words, speech, cry', or Template:Lang 'to cry' — e.g. Template:Lang 'to rattle'.

In the Bridges dictionary of the language one may note several otherwise identical terms differing only in whether they are spelled with an s or a ch — e.g. Template:Lang/Template:Lang 'skin'. It is not known whether this was dialectal, dialect mixture, ideolectal, gender-based usage or a real grammatical variation such as might occur with augmentative/diminutive sound symbolic shifting.

Alphabet

The alphabet currently sanctioned officially in Chile is as follows:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

a, æ, ch, e, ö, f, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, rh, s, š, t, u, w, x.

A simplified orthography is a variant of the old Bridges system, created for online use on the Waata Chis discussion list on Yahoo Groups<ref>Tauber, Jess. “8 - Yahgan Orthography for the list”Template:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore. 24 April 2004. Retrieved on 04 abril 2017.</ref> and elsewhere. It has tense and lax vowels as well as voiced and voiceless consonants. In the system, tenseness is marked by colon (:) following the vowel sign: a, a:, ai, au, e, e:, i, i:, iu:, o, o:, oi, u, u:, v (pronounced as a schwa, not Template:IPA), all corresponding to unique graphemes in the Bridges orthography. The consonants are b, d, ch, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, w, x, y, z, all corresponding to unique Bridges graphemes. Some are found only in restricted environments. The phonemes hm, hn, hl, hr, hw, and hy are used as well, and are digraphs in the earlier Bridges writings, but single graphemes in later ones.

Still later, Bridges made further orthographic modifications: w, h, and y became superscripts, and à is read as ya, á as ha, and ā as wa. Superscripts could combine to give hw, hy, etc. Because iu: could now be represented by u: plus y- superscript (ù:), and because the original graphemes for u: and u were easily confused with each other as well as with the now-superscripted w, Bridges began using the now-redundant grapheme for iu: (approximately ų) for u: in his renderings. All of these changes took place in a very short time frame, and have led to substantial confusion on the part of later scholars.

In addition, Bridges' modifications of the 19th century phonetic alphabet of Alexander Ellis also included a number of signs meant for transliterations of foreign terms.

There are some ambiguities in Bridges' renderings. He himself notes that g/k, j/ch, d/t and p/f are, in many instances, interchangeable. In certain environments s and sh are hard to distinguish (as before high front vowels). The same goes for ai versus e: and au versus o:. Such ambiguities may go far to help explain the loss or lack of contrasts in the surviving dialect.

Pronunciation

<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Letter Letter name
pronunciation 		IPA sound Example word
Word IPA pronunciation English meaning Spanish meaning
A Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Canoe Template:Lang
Æ Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Jonquil
(rush daffodil) 		Template:Lang
Ch/Č Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Wave Template:Lang
E Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA One Template:Lang
Ö/Ǎ Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Sun Template:Lang
F Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Fat Template:Lang
H Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA I leave you
(farewell) 		Template:Lang
I Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Southern wind Template:Lang
J/Y Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Dog Template:Lang
K Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Grandma Template:Lang
L Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Owl Template:Lang
M Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Father-in-law Template:Lang
N Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Needle Template:Lang
O Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Ears Template:Lang
P Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Wood Template:Lang
R/Rr Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Cormorant Template:Lang
Rh Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Cave Template:Lang
Ř Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:IPA House, hut, tent Template:Lang
S Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Water Template:Lang
Š Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Penguin Template:Lang
T Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Mom Template:Lang
U Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Barberry Template:Lang
W Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Skua Template:Lang
X Template:IPA Template:IPAslink Template:Lang Template:IPA Canal Template:Lang

Grammar

Syntax

Yahgan exhibits extensive case marking on nouns and equally extensive voice marking on verbs. Because of this, word order is relatively less important in determining subject and object relations. Most of the clauses in the three published biblical texts, the dictionary, and the various grammars show either verb medial or verb final orders. Certain clause types are verb initial, but are the distinct minority.

Further analysis of the biblical texts is showing that the Yahga dialect allowed for semantic reordering of constituents. For instance, if SVO is considered the default order for subject and object flanking the verb, then when O is left-shifted (SOV) there is often a sense that the object nominal has more say in his/her patient-hood than if kept to the right of the verb. Similarly, when the subject is right-shifted (VSO) its agent-hood appears often less than what one would expect. It will remain to be seen how pervasive this principle is in the language, and how intricately it interacts with Tense-Aspect-Mood and Polarity marking, topicalization, focus, etc.

The adverb Template:Lang 'fast, quick(ly)' can be used lexically to modify predications, but in the three biblical texts it is also apparently used to mark the second component clause in 'if-then' types of constructions. There is no mention made of this in surviving grammars, nor in the dictionary glosses of Template:Lang. The progressive verb suffix Template:Lang may be related.

Grammaticalization

Grammaticalization is a historical linguistic process whereby regular lexical items shift function (and sometimes form) and become part of the grammar structure.

An example of this in Yahgan would be the change of posture verbs into aspectual markers. Yahgan has a system of verbs which denote the posture of an entity: 'stand' Template:Lang, 'sit' Template:Lang, 'lie' Template:Lang and others (for instance Template:Lang 'fly/jump', Template:Lang 'float' etc.). In normal lexical usage one could say

Template:Lang 'I sat'. (Template:Lang full pronoun first person singular, Template:Lang bound version unmarked for number, Template:Lang past tense).
Template:Lang 'You stood'. (Template:Lang full pronoun second singular, Template:Lang bound).

But with the same root in their grammaticalized forms added:

Template:Lang 'I stood regularly, or as a rule'.
Template:Lang 'You often sat, or were ready to sit'.

The semantic bases of such usage seems to the degree of bodily contact with the substratum, vigilance, engagement, etc. Flying/jumping means ceasing some activity of interest entirely and going off to do something else rather suddenly, standing implies readiness to do something else as needed but attending to the activity when one can. Sitting is regular involvement in the activity, though not to the exclusion of other things that need doing. Lying (not just on but also within) is deep involvement, almost to the exclusion of other activities (English 'immersed in', being 'wrapped up in', 'in a rut' 'be up to one's neck/ears in', 'in over one's head', 'buried in (as work)' etc. have similar import). Relative height is another way to look at it- we say we are 'over' with something to mean 'done with' (equivalent to the jump/fly term in Yahgan), with a hint of relative dominance implied as well. While English has a plethora of colorful expressions for denoting such circumstances, Yahgan has reduced the system to a well-defined smallish set of terms from the domain of posture verbs. Such reduction is one symptom of grammaticalization.

Such contact/engagement-based semantic clines are relatively common cross-linguistically, and the phenomenon of posture verbs changing to aspect marking morphemes is well known among linguists, though it is not the only pathway to creating such terms.

A phonetically based cline (based on both oral articulatory position and manner) can be seen in prefixes Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang in Yahgan, and combinations Template:Lang and Template:Lang.

Combined forms Template:Lang and Template:Lang appear to accentuate the continuous part of the activity.

In North America, languages of the Siouan and Chemakuan families have similarly structured basic systems (Siouan prefixal, Chemakuan suffixal), but mostly with spatial reference. Template:Lang is standing out, away from some surface, Template:Lang is surface contact, and Template:Lang is containment within a surface, though there are also processual and figure/ground senses involved. Note that standing away minimizes surface contact. Other language families have distance demonstratives which follow similar phonological clines. It is possible that there may be historical connections between the y- form and ki:pa 'woman' and u:- and u:a 'man', which when verbalized apparently refer to less and more forceful or determined attempts to achieve respectively. Verbs Template:Lang 'to intend, wish' and Template:Lang 'pass, surpass', as well as Template:Lang 'do fiercely, forcibly' may be related, with suffixal Template:Lang on the first forms.

Horizontal movement verbs commonly change, cross-linguistically, into tense markers. Yahgan shows evidence of such shifts as well.

Pronouns

The three personal pronoun bases are: Template:Lang first person/proximal, Template:Lang second person/near distal, Template:Lang third person/further distal. These are also the forms found as bound prefixes on verbs.

Free/emphatic forms:

Nominative
singular dual plural
1st person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
2nd person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
3rd person Template:Lang Template:Lang or Template:IPA Template:Lang
Accusative
singular plural
1st person Template:Lang Template:Lang
2nd person Template:Lang Template:Lang
3rd person Template:Lang Template:Lang

Demonstratives

The demonstrative bases are the same historically as those of the pronouns:

Adjectives

Yahgan possesses a large number of adjective roots, especially those referring to physical states of matter, health, psychological states, etc. Many do double duty as nouns, adverbs, less often without derivation as verbs. Nouns and adjectives can be verbalized by adding Template:Lang '(be) in a state', or Template:Lang 'become' or both Template:Lang 'develop into a state' (where the identity of V is influenced by the final vowel of the root, but is often not identical to it). Such verbalizations are exceedingly common in the dictionary, and can be further derived and inflected.

Template:Interlinear

Adjectives in Yahgan generally have predicative value when following a noun, but are attributive when preceding. There are large numbers of adjective-noun compounds in the language. Examples of attributive adjectives preceding the noun:

Examples of predicative adjectives following a noun:

Some more commonly used suffixal forms creating adjectives are:

Examples:

As with other adjective roots, these suffixed forms may be further derived as in the lvmbi example above.

Adverbs

Adverbs are the one-word class that appears to allow for productive reduplication.

Template:Interlinear

Nouns

The physical environment in which the Yahgan people lived was relatively poor in land resources, and historically they spent little time in the interior. It is understandable, then, that the vocabulary reflects this. There are many fewer names for land animals and plants than one might expect based on what is found in other languages from other, richer natural environments. The sea coast was a different matter, and the language had many terms for sea birds and ocean life.

Yahgan emphasized interconnected parts over unanalyzed wholes (also reflected in their verb serialization). Body parts are finely differentiated, as are social relationships. The vocabulary contained a vast number of deverbalized nouns.

Personal names often derived from the name of the place of birth- for instance, a man born in Ushuaia (meaning 'bay (Template:Lang) in the upper back (Template:Lang)') might be Template:Lang. Alternatively one might use the case form Template:Lang 'from' and Template:Lang 'man' giving Template:Lang.

Subject nouns take no overt case marking (subject coreference is on the verb instead). Nouns can be marked for accusative, genitive, dative, locative, instrumental and other cases. Geographical information can be incorporated into the string, as can information about number, collectivity, definiteness, etc. Most of these marks are suffixal.

In the three biblical texts there are numerous complex noun phrases with very involved case relations. It is unknown whether this is characteristic of speaker usage or an invention of the missionary Bridges.

Verbs can be nominalized through a variety of means, particularly by the prefixation of circumstantial T (with its various allomorphs) and/or suffixation of participial morphemes:

Examples:

Verbs

Verbs in Yahgan are often compounded ("serialized"). Bound subject pronouns (Template:Lang 1st, Template:Lang 2nd, Template:Lang 3rd), unmarked for number, are prefixed, coming before voice prefixes (such as Template:Lang passive, Template:Lang causative, Template:Lang permissive, Template:Lang circumstantial (with allomorphs Template:Lang, Template:Not a typo, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang), Template:Lang back, in response to, etc.). Aspect (such as progressive Template:Lang), tense (for instance Template:Lang simple past, Template:Lang simple future, with added increments Template:Lang 'further past', Template:Lang 'further future), and mood (generally in that order), etc. are suffixal, along with the two 'benefactive' suffixes Template:Lang 'for self', Template:Lang 'for another'. Number within the verb (number of subjects or acts) can be encoded by overt marking (once -Template:Lang, twice -Template:Lang/Template:Lang, several times Template:Lang, plural Template:Lang/Template:Lang, or even none Template:Lang) or the many different distinct plural verbs (for instance Template:Lang 'sg. to stand', Template:Lang 'pl. to stand'; Template:Lang 'sg. to take, convey', Template:Lang 'pl. to take, convey').

Ex. Template:Lang 'We (Template:Lang) were making them (Template:Lang) take (Template:Lang < Template:Lang 'take') the boat (Template:Lang) during (Template:Lang circumstantial plus Template:Lang locative on) the winter (Template:Lang) a while ago'.

A handful of verbs form doublets where one of the pair seems to have an unproductive reversative suffix possibly related to the form Template:Lang '(do) for oneself'. For instance Template:Lang 'to lend', Template:Lang 'to borrow'.

In addition to normal serialization Yahgan also exhibits complex verb stems of a type relatively common in western North America, where the main verb is flanked by instrument/body part manner of action prefixes and pathway/position suffixes. The prefixes are part of a larger, more open system of elements marking various kinds of causes or motivations, grading off into more grammaticalized voice marking. Many of the path/position suffixes (especially posture verbs) do double duty as sources for more grammaticalized aspectual morphology. Tense suffixes seem to derive historically from horizontal motion verbs, and together with the more vertical postural aspect forms, make an interesting Cartesian-style coordinate system for dealing with the temporal dimension.

Template:Interlinear Template:Notelist

Template:Interlinear

A small number of commonly used verb roots have irregular present tenses. Instead of dropping the final vowel (triggering reductive processes) these forms instead add Template:Lang after the vowel is dropped. Examples: Template:Lang 'to sit'/'to be', present Template:Lang (from Template:Lang), Template:Lang 'to lie'/'to be', present Template:Lang, Template:Lang 'to float'/'to be', present Template:Lang. In the last example note that this seemingly suppletive present may in fact hark back to the original historical form, and infinitival Template:Lang may be the changed one.

The form Template:Lang 'to hear' has grammaticalized into an evidential suffix Template:Lang 'hearsay'. Ex. Template:Lang 'They say that in this land many men died'. There are several other evidential suffixes, differentiating sensory mode (hearing, sight, etc.) as well as time. Template:Lang also finds modal use in the clitic space that often follows the first substantive in the sentence: Template:Lang 'He MUST be alive, because they (the ones who told me about it) saw him today'. There are other modal verbs also found in this space.

There is little or no reduplication evident on the Yahgan verb, and sound symbolism of the augmentative/diminutive type appears to be largely lexicalized. On the other hand, Yahgan exhibits a good deal of remnant sound symbolism in the verb, similar to what one sees in English.

A good number of verbs seem to form small 'word families' which have slight semantic differences which may have been encoded using sound symbolism (as one often sees, for instance, in some languages of the Austroasiatic stock). For instance Template:Lang 'go, walk lightly' versus Template:Lang 'walk heavily, plod'. In such cases the original symmetry of form seems often to have been distorted by historical changes.

Vocabulary

Included below are some basic Yahgan words.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Loukotka (1968)

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for four Yámana (Yahgan) dialects.<ref name="Loukotka">Template:Cite book</ref>

gloss Eastern
Yamana		 Central
Yamana		 Western
Yamana		 Southern
Yamana
tongue Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
hand Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
water Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
moon Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
dog Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
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See also

References

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Bibliography

  • Aguilera Faúndez, Óscar (2000): "En torno a la estructura fonologica del yagán. Fonología de la palabra". Onomazein, Santiago, vol. 5, pp. 233–241.
  • Bridges, Thomas (1894): "A few notes on the structure of Yahgan". Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London, vol. 23, pp. 53–80.
  • Golbert de Goodbar, Perla (1977): "Yagan I. Las partes de la oración". Vicus, Amsterdam, vol. 1, pp. 5–60.
  • Golbert de Goodbar, Perla (1978): "Yagan II. Morfología nominal". Vicus, Amsterdam, vol. 2, pp. 87–101.
  • Guerra Eissmann, Ana M. (1990): "Esbozo fonológico del yagán", en Actas del Octavo Seminario Nacional de Investigación y Enseñanza de la Lingüística. Santiago: Universidad de Chile y Sociedad Chilena de Lingüística, vol. V, pp. 88–93.
  • Guerra Eissmann, Ana M. (1992): "Las fluctuaciones de fonemas en el yagán". Revista de Lingüística Teórica y Applicada, Concepción, vol. 30, pp. 171–182.
  • Haudricourt, André (1952): "Yamana", en Antoine Meillet y Marcel Cohen (eds.): Les langues du monde. París: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, pp. 1196–1198.
  • Holmer, Nils M. (1953): "Apuntes comparados sobre la lengua de los yaganes (Tierra del Fuego)". Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, Montevideo, vol. 10, pp. 193–223, y vol. 11 (1954), pp. 121–142.
  • Salas, Adalberto, y Valencia, Alba (1990): "El fonetismo del yámana o yagán. Una nota en lingüística de salvataje". Revista de Lingüística Teórica y Applicada, Concepción, vol. 28, pp. 147–169 (in Spanish).

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