Bangladesh

The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore and Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam, used the term in 1905 and 1932 respectively.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan.

The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangala Desa is found in 11th-century South Indian records.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Sen-1999">Template:Cite book</ref> The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.<ref name="Ahmed2004">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>"But the most important development of this period was that the country for the first time received a name, ie Bangalah." Banglapedia: Islam, Bengal Template:Webarchive</ref> Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342.<ref name="Ahmed2004" /> The word Bangāl became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".<ref>Land of Two Rivers, Nitish Sengupta</ref> This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.<ref name="riaj">RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal Template:Webarchive, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.</ref>

The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".<ref name="Sen-1999" />

History

Early history

The first great indigenous empire to cover the territory was the Maurya Empire (Template:Circa 320–185 BC). Following its decline, the kingdom of Samatata arose, which was a tributary state of the Gupta Empire (ca. 319-ca. 540 AD). Harsha (606–47 AD) drew Samatata into its loosely administered political structure. The Buddhist Pala Empire ruled the region from 750 to 1150 AD. It was overthrown by the Hindu Sena dynasty, which ruled the territory until the Muslim conquests led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji of the Ghurid dynasty in 1204.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Medieval period

Bengal was then incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD).<ref name="islamization">Template:Cite book</ref> In 1341, the independent Bengal Sultanate was established by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah.<ref name="islamization"/> Amidst geographic expansion and economic prosperity, it was regarded by European and Chinese visitors as the "richest country to trade with".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in 1576.<ref name="islamization"/><ref>Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan (eds). The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, c.1200–c.1750. Cambridge University Press, 1982.</ref> By the 18th century, the Bengal Subah emerged as the wealthiest province of the empire and was described as the "Paradise of Countries" and the "breadbasket of India".<ref name="islamization"/> Its citizens enjoyed some of the best standards of living in the world, as the region was a major global exporter and producer of cotton textiles (muslin in particular), silk and shipbuilding.<ref name="ray">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, the region became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, founded by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717.

British colonial rule

In 1757, the state led by Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated by the British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey—which was key in establishing colonial British rule over Bengal and the wider Indian subcontinent. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution at the expense of an extraordinary capital flight and deindustrialisation following British colonial loot and the collapse of the Bengali textile industry.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ray"/>Template:Rp The catastrophic Great Bengal famine of 1770 caused over ten million deaths,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> killing one-third of the total population of the Bengal Presidency,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp and remains one of the deadliest man-made famines in history.

As part of Pakistan

Template:Further In the aftermath of direct British rule for nearly two centuries, the borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal between India and Pakistan by the Radcliffe Line<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> during the partition of India on 15 August 1947, when the region became East Bengal as the eastern and most populous wing of the newly formed Dominion of Pakistan—alongside West Pakistan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The western and eastern wings of the newly formed Pakistan were geographically separated by a distance of over 1,000 miles, which became the root cause of deep economic inequality.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal's first chief minister with Frederick Chalmers Bourne its governor. The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in 1949. In 1950, the East Bengal Legislative Assembly enacted land reform, abolishing the Permanent Settlement and the zamindari system.<ref>Baxter, p. 72</ref> The Awami Muslim League was renamed as a more "secular" Awami League in 1953.<ref name="LewisSagar1992">Template:Cite book"its present name in December 1953"</ref> The first constituent assembly was dissolved in 1954. The United Front coalition swept aside the Muslim League in a landslide victory in the 1954 East Bengali legislative election. The following year, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan as part of the One Unit programme, and the province became a vital part of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

Amidst rising cultural and societal differences—the brutal government crackdown on the 1952 Bengali language movement to establish Bengali as the official language of Pakistan spurred Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements. Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Pakistan Armed Forces imposed martial law in 1958, following a coup d'état, with Ayub Khan establishing a dictatorship for over a decade. A new constitution was introduced in 1962, replacing the parliamentary system with a presidential and gubernatorial system (based on electoral college selection) known as "Basic Democracy".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1962, Dhaka became the seat of the National Assembly of Pakistan, a move seen as appeasing increased Bengali nationalism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six-point movement for a federal parliamentary democracy.

Ethnic, linguistic, and cultural discrimination was common in Pakistan's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under-represented;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> leading to East Pakistan forging a distinct political identity.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Authorities banned Bengali literature and music in the state media.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Pakistani government practised extensive economic discrimination against East Pakistan, including the refusal for foreign aid allocation.<ref name="google.co.nz">Template:Cite book</ref> Despite generating 70% of Pakistan's export revenue with jute and tea, East Pakistan received much less government spending. Notable economists from East Pakistan, including Rehman Sobhan and Nurul Islam demanded a separate foreign exchange account for the eastern wing, also pointing to the existence of two different economies within Pakistan itself, dubbed the Two-Economies Theory.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The populist leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested for treason in the Agartala Conspiracy Case and was released during the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power, reintroducing martial law.

A cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan in 1970, killing an estimated 500,000 people,<ref>Bangladesh cyclone of 1991 Template:Webarchive. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.</ref> and the central government was criticised for its poor response.<ref name="countrystudies.us1">Template:Cite web</ref> After the December 1970 elections, the Bengali-nationalist Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly. The League claimed the right to form a government and develop a new constitution but was strongly opposed by the Pakistani military and the Pakistan Peoples Party led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

The 7 March Speech of Mujib led to a non-cooperation movement. The autocratic Pakistani government then initiated Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971 in response.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Mujib signed the Proclamation of Independence on 26 March 1971, leading to the nine-month-long bloody liberation war, which led to a genocide,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and the culmination of Bangladesh as a sovereign nation following Pakistani surrender on 16 December 1971.

Independent Bangladesh

The Constitution of Bangladesh was enacted on 4 November 1972.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Following independence, the Mujib-led government engaged in large-scale corruption and mismanagement, leading to nationwide lawlessness and economic devastation. Efforts to establish One-party socialism and a large famine in 1974 led to Mujib's assassination in 1975 following a significant decline in his popularity.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="gov0"/>Template:Rp The presidency was then transferred to Ziaur Rahman, who re-established public order, industrialised agriculture, founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and initiated the creation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Following Rahman's assassination in 1981, the ensuing decade was a military dictatorship under Hussain Muhammad Ershad that saw infrastructural development, devolution reforms, privatisation of nationalised industries and the declaration of Islam as the state religion in 1988.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

After the restoration of parliamentary democracy in 1991, power alternated between Khaleda Zia of the BNP and Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League, an era dubbed the "Battle of the Begums"—which defined Bangladesh's politics and history for next 34 years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="gov0"/>Template:Rp The return of the Awami League to power following a landslide victory in the 2008 general election<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> under Sheikh Hasina's leadership saw unprecedented economic progress alongside democratic backsliding, increasing authoritarianism, endemic corruption, and widespread human rights abuses.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Hasina won her second, third and fourth consecutive terms in the 2014, 2018 and the 2024 general elections—all of which were shams and neither free nor fair.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Following a July Mass Uprising against the authoritarian government, Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India on 5 August 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> An interim government was formed on 8 August 2024, with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as the Chief Adviser.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Since the 1980s, driven by free market policies and economic liberalisation measures, Bangladesh has achieved significant economic growth—emerging as one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, driven by its large textile industry, which is the second-largest in the world.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It has emerged as the second-largest economy in South Asia, achieving comparable nominal GDP per capita to that of neighbouring India.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh has achieved remarkable feats in reducing its poverty rate, which has gone down from 80% in 1971,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to 44.2% in 1991,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and all the way down to 18.7% in 2022.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Its Human Development Index growth during the 21st century was surpassed only by China.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As part of the green transition, Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It has also given shelter to over a million Rohingya refugees fleeing the Rohingya genocide since 2017, which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Geography

Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges.

The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers",<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers, the most of any nation-state. Water issues are politically complicated since Bangladesh is downstream of India.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than Template:Convert above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by Template:Convert.<ref name="ali">Template:Cite journal</ref> 12% of the country is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong, located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of Template:Convert.<ref name=CIA/> Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest.

In Bangladesh forest cover is around 14% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,883,400 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 1,920,330 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,725,330 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 158,070 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 33% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Climate

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below Template:Convert, with a record low of Template:Convert in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year,<ref name="NatDis">Template:Cite book</ref> combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people.<ref>"Beset by Bay's Killer Storms, Bangladesh Prepares and Hopes Template:Webarchive ". Los Angeles Times. 27 February 2005</ref>

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000.<ref name="EWG">Template:Cite book</ref> As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, with a death toll around 500.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Climate change

Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 per cent of which are believed to have made landfall in Bangladesh.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 per cent of the land and displace more than 30 million people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Biodiversity

Template:Main Template:Multiple image Template:Multiple image

Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm, and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm.<ref name="global.britannica.com">Bangladesh | history – geography :: Plant and animal life Template:Webarchive. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

Bangladesh is home to most of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of Template:Convert in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries: the South, East, and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands, and hills.<ref name="global.britannica.com"/> The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill.<ref name="bearprojectbd.weebly.com">Template:Cite web</ref> The chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. The country has widespread environmental issues; pollution of the Dhaleshwari River by the textile industry and shrimp cultivation in Chakaria Sundarbans have both been described by academics as ecocides.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.<ref name="bearprojectbd.weebly.com"/> It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.<ref name="cbd.int">Template:Cite web</ref> Template:As of, the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.<ref name="cbd.int"/>

Government and politics

Bangladesh, by constitution, is a unitary state<ref name="gov2"/> and a de jure representative democracy with a Westminster-style parliamentary system<ref name="gov0"/> that has universal suffrage.<ref name="gov">Template:Cite journal</ref> The government can be divided into three pillars: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary—all function to ensure accountability, transparency and checks and balances of the government.<ref name="gov2">Template:Cite web</ref> Since its independence, the Awami League (AL) and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) have remained two of the most powerful political parties in Bangladesh.<ref name="gov0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The first pillar of the government is the executive organ, which is entrusted with the total administration of the country.<ref name="gov2"/> Executive powers are largely vested in the Prime Minister, who is the head of government, and oversees the cabinet.<ref name="gov2"/> The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. Various ministers form the bulk of the executive organ, overseeing government departments and forming policies.<ref name="gov2"/> The Civil Service assists the ministers in implementing the policies.<ref name="gov2"/> All authorities unite to formulate policies, manage public services, and implement national development plans.<ref name="gov2"/> The President is the ceremonial head of state, whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law and maintaining the government's stability and continuity;<ref name="gov2"/> as well as fulfilling their duties as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the chancellor of all universities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The second pillar of the government is the legislative organ, also known as the Jatiya Sangsad (House of the Nation).<ref name="parliament">Template:Cite web</ref> Citizens across the country vote to elect the members of parliament (MPs).<ref name="gov2"/> The unicameral parliament has 350 MPs, including 300 elected on the first past the post system and 50 appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment.<ref name="parliament"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The parliament is presided over by the Speaker, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The third pillar of the government is the judiciary organ, which is in charge of interpreting the law, resolving conflicts, and maintaining justice across the nation.<ref name="gov2"/> The Supreme Court is the highest court, separated into the Appellate Division and the High Court Division.<ref name="court">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="gov2"/> It is led by the Chief Justice with the assistance of other justices.<ref name="court"/> The judiciary has the power to assess a law's constitutionality and offer legal remedies. Protecting citizens' rights, making sure the law is applied fairly, and preserving the balance of power within the government are all made possible by the court.<ref name="gov2"/> The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

According to International IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Bangladesh performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and elected government.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Administrative divisions

Template:Further Template:Bangladesh Divisions Image Map Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="CIA">Template:Cite CIA World Factbook</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal<ref name="namechange">Template:Cite news</ref>), Chittagong (officially Chattogram<ref name="namechange" />), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.<ref>Local Government Act, No. 20, 1997</ref>

Administrative Divisions of Bangladesh
Division	Capital	Established	Area (km²) <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>	2021 Population (projected)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>	Density 2021
Barisal Division	Barisal	1 January 1993	13,225	9,713,000	734
Chittagong Division	Chittagong	1 January 1829	33,909	34,747,000	1,025
Dhaka Division	Dhaka	1 January 1829	20,594	42,607,000	2,069
Khulna Division	Khulna	1 October 1960	22,284	18,217,000	817
Mymensingh Division	Mymensingh	14 September 2015	10,584	13,457,000	1,271
Rajshahi Division	Rajshahi	1 January 1829	18,153	21,607,000	1,190
Rangpur Division	Rangpur	25 January 2010	16,185	18,868,000	1,166
Sylhet Division	Sylhet	1 August 1995	12,635	12,463,000	986

Foreign relations

Bangladesh is considered a middle power in global politics.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It plays an important role in the geopolitical affairs of the Indo-Pacific,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> due to its strategic location between South and Southeast Asia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and the United Nations in 1974.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It relies on multilateral diplomacy on issues like climate change, nuclear non-proliferation, trade policy and non-traditional security issues.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC, which has been the preeminent forum for regional diplomacy among the countries of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It joined the OIC in 1974,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and is a founding member of the Developing-8.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade and transport links with support from the World Bank.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh is also attempting to join ASEAN as one of its top foreign policy goals, post Hasina's rule.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Dhaka hosts the headquarters of BIMSTEC, an organisation that brings together countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.

Relations with neighbouring Myanmar have been severely strained since 2016–2017, after over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh.<ref name="RohingyaHRW">Template:Cite web</ref> The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bangladesh shares an important bilateral and economic relationship with its largest neighbour India,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which is often strained by water politics of the Ganges and the Teesta,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the border killings of Bangladeshi civilians.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Post-independent Bangladesh has continued to have a problematic relationship with Pakistan, mainly due to its denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It maintains a warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Military

The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2024, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Armed Forces was around 230,000,<ref name="IISS">*Template:Cite book</ref> including the Air Force (21,000) and the Navy (27,000).<ref>Including service and civilian personnel. See Bangladesh Navy. Retrieved 17 July 2007.</ref> In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of forces agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Civil society

Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society. There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations, human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, employers' associations, and trade unions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Human rights

Armed men in black uniforms on a street — The Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) have been widely accused of extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances and human right abuses. The United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned RAB in 2021.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Torture is banned by the Constitution of Bangladesh,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but is rampantly used by Bangladesh's security forces. Bangladesh joined the Convention against Torture in 1998 and it enacted its first anti-torture law, the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act, in 2013. The first conviction under this law was announced in 2020.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Amnesty International Prisoners of Conscience from Bangladesh have included Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> The widely criticised Digital Security Act was repealed and replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The repeal was welcomed by the International Press Institute.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

On International Human Rights Day in December 2021, the United States Department of the Treasury announced sanctions on commanders of the Rapid Action Battalion for extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights abuses.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Freedom House has criticised the government for human rights abuses, the crackdown on the opposition, mass media, and civil society through politicised enforcement.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh is ranked "partly free" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World report,<ref>Bangladesh Template:Webarchive. Freedom House. Retrieved 27 April 2015.</ref> but its press freedom has deteriorated from "free" to "not free" in recent years due to increasing pressure from the government.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Bangladesh was ranked 96th among 163 countries in the 2022 Global Peace Index.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

LGBT rights are frowned upon among social conservatives.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Homosexuality is affected by Section 377 of the Penal Code of Bangladesh, which was originally enacted by the British colonial government.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The government only recognises the transgender and intersex community known as the Hijra.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1.2 million people were enslaved in Bangladesh Template:As of, which is among the highest in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Corruption

Like many developing countries, institutional corruption is an issue of concern for Bangladesh. Bangladesh was ranked 146th among 180 countries on Transparency International's 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015,<ref>Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Template:Webarchive, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 1</ref> followed by education,<ref>Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Template:Webarchive, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 12</ref> police<ref>Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Template:Webarchive, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 21</ref> and water supply.<ref>The Business of Bribes: Bangladesh: The Blowback of Corruption Template:Webarchive, Public Broadcasting Services, Arlington, Virginia, 2009</ref> The Anti Corruption Commission was formed in 2004, and it was active during the 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Economy

Bangladesh's lower-middle income mixed-market economy is among the fastest growing economies in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A rapidly developing country, it has the world's 36th-largest economy by nominal terms, and the 24th-largest by PPP. Bangladesh has a labour force of 71.4 million,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which is the world's seventh-largest; with an unemployment rate of 5.1% Template:As of.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Its foreign exchange reserves, although depleting,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> remain the second-highest in South Asia, after India. Bangladesh's large diaspora contributed roughly $27 billion in remittances in 2024.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Bangladeshi taka is the national currency.

Template:As of, the large service sector accounts for about 51.5% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (34.6%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 11% of total GDP;<ref name="cia"/> despite being the largest employment sector, providing roughly half of the total workforce.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Over 84% of the export earnings come from the textile industry.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh is the second-leading garments exporter in the world, and plays a crucial role in the global fast fashion industry, exporting to various Western fashion brands.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also a major producer of jute,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> rice,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> fish,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> tea,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and flowers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, electronics and leather goods.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> China is the largest trading partner of Bangladesh, accounting for 15% of the total trade, followed by India; which accounts for 8% of the total trade.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The private sector accounts for 80% of GDP compared to the dwindling role of state-owned companies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh's economy is dominated by family-owned conglomerates and small and medium-sized businesses. Some of the largest publicly traded companies in Bangladesh include BEXIMCO, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are the country's twin capital markets.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Its telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest growing, with 188.78 million cellphone subscribers at the end of November 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Political instability,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> high inflation,<ref name="sadiq">Template:Cite web</ref> endemic corruption,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> insufficient power supplies,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and slow implementation of reforms are major challenges to economic growth.<ref name="sadiq"/>

Bangladesh was ranked 106th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024 and in 2025.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Energy

Bangladesh, a country experiencing daily blackouts several times a day in 2009, achieved 100% electrification by 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is gradually transitioning to a green economy and has the largest off-grid solar power programme in the world, benefiting 20 million people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> An electric car called the Palki is being developed for production in the country.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Biogas is being used to produce organic fertiliser.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The under-construction Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, under-construction with assistance from the Russian company Rosatom, will be the first operational nuclear power plant in the country. Its first unit, out of the two total units, is expected to go into operation in 2025.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bangladesh continues to have huge untapped reserves of natural gas, particularly in its maritime territory.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A lack of exploration and decreasing proven reserves have forced Bangladesh to import LNG from abroad.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Gas shortages were further exacerbated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Bangladesh stopped buying spot price LNG temporarily in July 2022, despite constant load-shedding, due to a steep price hike in the global market.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It restarted buying spot price LNG once again in February 2023 as prices eased.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

While government-owned companies in Bangladesh generate nearly half of Bangladesh's electricity, privately owned companies like the Summit Group and Orion Group are playing an increasingly important role in both generating electricity, and supplying machinery, reactors, and equipment.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh increased electricity production capacity from 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022. It plans to further increase it to 50 gigawatts by 2041. US companies like Chevron and General Electric supply around 55% of Bangladesh's domestic natural gas production and are among the largest investors in power projects. 80% of Bangladesh's installed gas-fired power generation capacity comes from turbines manufactured in the United States.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Tourism

The tourism industry is expanding, contributing some 3.02% of total GDP.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh's international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $391 million.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans) and seven tentative-list sites.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9% of the country's total employment.<ref name="2019 report">Template:Cite web</ref> According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year.<ref name="2019 report"/> Domestic spending generated 97.7 per cent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.<ref name="2013 report">Template:Cite web</ref>

Demographics

Template:Further Template:Historical populations Bangladesh had a recorded population of 169.8 million in the 2022 census,<ref name="populationcensus2022"/> which rose to 171.4 million Template:As of.<ref name="unpop"/> It is the eighth-most-populous country in the world, the fifth-most populous country in Asia, and the most densely populated large country in the world, with a headline population density of 1,265 people/km² Template:As of.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh's total fertility rate (TFR), once among the highest in the world, has experienced a dramatic decline, from 5.5 in 1985 to 3.7 in 1995, down to 1.9 in 2022,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which is below the sub-replacement fertility of 2.1.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Most of the population live in rural areas, with only 40% of the population living in urban areas Template:As of.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh has a median age of roughly 28 years, with 26% of the total population aged 14 or younger,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and merely 6% aged 65 and above Template:As of.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bangladesh is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, as Bengalis form 99% of the population.<ref name="cia"/> The Adivasi population includes the Chakmas, Marmas, Santhals, Mros, Tanchangyas, Bawms, Tripuris, Khasis, Khumis, Kukis, Garos, and Bisnupriya Manipuris. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarised.<ref name="rashiduzzaman">Template:Cite journal</ref> Urdu-speaking stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since 2017, giving it one of the largest refugee populations in the world.<ref name="RohingyaHRW"/>

Urban centres

Template:Further Bangladesh's capital Dhaka and the largest city and is overseen by two city corporations that manage between them the northern and southern parts of the city. There are 13 city corporations which hold mayoral elections: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur, Bogura and Narayanganj. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000. Template:Largest cities

Language

The official and predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is spoken by more than 99% of the population as their native language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="LOG">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. There is a diglossia in which much of the population can understand or speak in Standard Colloquial Bengali, and in their regional dialect or language variety.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> These include Chittagonian which is spoken in the southeastern region of Chittagong,<ref>Template:Cite book "The dialect of Chittagong, in southeast Bangladesh, is different enough to be considered a separate language."</ref> Noakhali spoken in the southern district of Noakhali<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Sylheti spoken in the northeastern region of Sylhet.<ref name="LOG"/>

English plays an important role in Bangladesh's judicial and educational affairs, due to the country's history as part of the British Empire. It is widely spoken and commonly understood, and is taught as a compulsory subject in all schools, colleges and universities, while the English-medium educational system is widely attended.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Tribal languages, although increasingly endangered, include the Chakma language, another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by the Chakma people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Others are Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the most spoken is the Santali language, native to the Santal people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The stranded Pakistanis and some sections of the Old Dhakaites often use Urdu as their native tongue. Still, the usage of the latter remains highly reproached.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Religion

Template:Bar box Islam is the state religion of Bangladesh.<ref name="state religion">Template:Cite web</ref> However, the constitution also upholds secularism and ensures equal rights for all religions.<ref name="secularism">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="state religion"/> Every citizen has the freedom to practice any religion.

Islam the largest religion across the country, being followed by about 91.1% of the population.<ref name="census"/> The vast majority of Bangladeshi citizens are Bengali Muslims, adhering to Sunni Islam.<ref name="state"/> The country is the third-most populous Muslim-majority state in the world and has the fourth-largest overall Muslim population.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bengali Hindus form the country's second-largest religious minority and the third-largest Hindu community in the world. According to the 2022 census Hindus form 7.95% of the total population.<ref name="state"/><ref name="census"/> In the 2011 census, Hindus formed 8.54% of the population.

Buddhism is the third-most followed religion, adhered to by merely 0.6% of the population.<ref name="census"/> Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among the tribal ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and by the Bengali Buddhist minority across coastal Chittagong, who mostly follow the Theravada school.<ref name="state"/>

Christianity is the fourth-largest religion at 0.3%, followed mainly by a small Bengali Christian minority.<ref name="census"/> 0.1% of the population practices other religions such as Animism or is irreligious.<ref name="state">Template:Cite web</ref>

Education

The constitution states that all children shall receive free and compulsory education.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for primary education and state-funded schools at a local level. Primary and secondary education is compulsory, and is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools. Bangladesh has a literacy rate of 76% as of 2021: 79% for males and 71.9% for females.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Its educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. However, government expenditure in education remains among the lowest in the world, at only 1.8% of the total GDP.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary which is university level.<ref name="CompEd2">Template:Cite book</ref> Primary level students have to pass the Primary Education Completion (PEC) exam to proceed to junior secondary. The junior secondary students then give the Junior School Certificate (JSC) exam to get enrolled in ninth grade, while tenth-grade students have to pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) exam to proceed to eleventh grade. Lastly, students have to pass the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) exam at grade twelve to apply for higher education or universities.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Universities are three general types: public (government-owned and funded by the University Grants Commission), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organisations). The country has 55 public,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> 115 private<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and 2 international universities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> National University is the third-largest university in the world by enrolment.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The University of Dhaka, established in 1921, is the oldest public university.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> BUET is the premiere university for engineering education. The University of Chittagong, established in 1966, has the largest campus.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> BUP is the largest public university affiliated with the armed forces.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Dhaka College, established in 1841, is among the oldest educational institutes in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Medical education is provided by 39 government, 6 armed force and 68 private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Health

Bangladesh, by the constitution, guarantees healthcare services as a fundamental right to all of its citizens.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the largest institutional healthcare provider in Bangladesh,<ref name="overview">Template:Cite book</ref> and contains two divisions: Health Service Division and Medical Education And Family Welfare Division.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as the economy has grown and poverty levels have decreased significantly.<ref name="overview"/> Bangladesh faces a severe health workforce crisis, as formally trained providers make up a small percentage of the total health workforce.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors persist, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Bangladesh's poor healthcare system suffers from severe underfunding from the government.<ref name="overview"/> Template:As of, some 2.36% of total GDP was attributed to healthcare,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and domestic general government spending on healthcare was 16.88% of the total budget,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> while out-of-pocket expenditures made up the vast majority of the total budget, totalling roughly 73%.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Domestic private health expenditure was about 75.48% of the total healthcare expenditure.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> There were only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, and about six physicians<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and six nurses per 1,000 people,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> while the number of hospital beds is 9 per 1,000.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The specialist surgical workforce was only 3 per 100,000 people,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and there were about 5 community health workers per 1,000 people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Roughly 60% of the population had access to drinking water in 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2002, it was estimated that half of the drinking water was polluted with arsenic, exceeding levels of 10 micrograms per litre.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh is crippled with one of the worst air qualities in the world, mostly concentrated in the densely populated urban areas, especially the capital Dhaka and its metropolitan area.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The World Bank estimated that roughly 80,000–90,000 deaths occurred in Bangladesh due to the drastic effects of air pollution in 2019. It was second-leading cause of death and disability, costing the country roughly 4–4.4% per cent of its total GDP.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Template:As of, the overall life expectancy in Bangladesh at birth was 74 years (72 years for males and 76 years for females).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It has a comparably high infant mortality rate (24 per 1,000 live births) and child mortality rate (29 per 1,000 live births).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Template:As of, maternal mortality remains high, clocking at 123 per 100,000 live births.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh is a key source market for medical tourism for various countries, mainly India,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> due to its citizens dissatisfaction and distrust over their own healthcare system.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The main causes of death are coronary artery disease, stroke, and chronic respiratory disease; comprising 62% and 60% of all adult male and female deaths, respectively.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Malnutrition is a major and persistent problem in Bangladesh, mainly affecting the rural regions, more than half of the population suffers from it. Severe acute malnutrition affects 450,000 children, while nearly 2 million children have moderate acute malnutrition. For children under the age of five, 52% are affected by anaemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight and around 15% have short stature, while over half also suffer from anaemia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh was ranked 84th out of the 127 countries listed in the 2024 Global Hunger Index.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Culture

Template:Further

Holidays and festivals

Traditional festivals include Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year), which is the major festival of Bengali culture; with widespread festivities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Pohela Falgun coincides with Valentine's Day, and is celebrated with a display of music, dance and other cultural activities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, which celebrate new harvests of crops.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Shakrain is an annual celebration, observed by flying kites, occurring at the end of Poush, the ninth month of the Bengali calendar. The festival coincides with Makar Sankranti celebrated in India and Nepal.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Among religious festivals, the two biggest festivals of the Muslim majority are Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the month of Ramadan—and Eid al-Adha, which is the festival of sacrifice.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Both Eids are celebrated with the longest streak of national holidays.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other Muslim festivals include Mawlid (Eid-e-Milad Un Nabi),<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Ashura on the tenth day of Muharram,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Chaand Raat,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and Shab-e-Barat, Shab-e-Meraj, Shab-e-Qadr during Ramadan and Bishwa Ijtema.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The most celebrated Hindu festival is Durga Puja.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other major Hindu festivals include Krishna Janmashtami, Kali Puja, Saraswati Puja, and Ratha Yatra.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The biggest festival of the Buddhists across the country is Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Among Christians, Christmas, known as Boro Din, and Easter are the most widely celebrated .<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Patriotic national festivals include the Language Movement Day, which is celebrated on 21 February in remembrance of the martyrs of the 1952 Bengali language movement.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was declared as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in 1999.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Independence Day is celebrated on 26 March to commemorate the proclamation of independence from Pakistan.<ref name="star2"/> Victory Day is celebrated on 16 December to celebrate the victory in the Bangladesh Liberation War.<ref name="star2">Template:Cite web</ref> Public gatherings are observed at the Shaheed Minar and National Martyrs' Memorial during the three latter festivals to pay homage to the fallen martyrs.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Literature

Bengali literature forms an important part of Bengali culture. The Charyapada poems dating back to the 10th to 12th centuries are the oldest extant examples of the Bengali language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian literature.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Milestones of the medieval age include the Mangal-Kāvyas.<ref name="run"/> The Vaishnava Padavali movement was led by writers such as Vidyapati, Chandidas, Govindadas and Balarama Dasa. Shreekrishna Kirtana written by Chandidas marked a particular height of poetic achievement since the Charyapadas.<ref name="run">Template:Cite web</ref> Other important works include Krittibas Ojha's translation of the Ramayana, Kashiram Das' translation of the Mahabharata, and Maladhar Basu's translation of the Bhagavata.<ref name="run"/> Writers such as Bipradas Pipilai,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Vijay Gupta,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Shah Muhammad Sagir, Zainuddin and Abdul Hakim were important figures.<ref name="run"/> Alaol, considered a bard, is a prolific poet of medieval period.<ref name="run"/>

The Bengal Renaissance from the late 18th century to the early 20th century had a profound effect on modern Bengali literature. Michael Madhusudan Dutt invented the blank verse in Bengali literature.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Mir Mosharraf Hossain was the first prominent Bengali Muslim writer.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Lalon, a fakir practising Sufism and sādhanā influenced the bauls.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote about the characteristics of the Bengali society.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Rabindranath Tagore was the first Asian and non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Jibanananda Das was the most recognised Bengali poet after Tagore and Nazrul.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan views.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet, popularly called Palli Kabi (folk poet).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Farrukh Ahmad is considered the poet of the "Islamic Renaissance".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Syed Waliullah was a notable novelist.<ref name="pied"/>

Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud are considered two of the greatest Bangladeshi poets to have emerged in the late 20th century. Ahmed Sofa is regarded as the most important intellectual in the post-independence era.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Sufia Kamal was a major feminist writer.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Humayun Ahmed was the most popular author in post-Independence Bangladesh.<ref name="pied">Template:Cite web</ref> Shahidul Zahir was widely acclaimed for his usage of magical realism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other major writers include Akhteruzzaman Elias, Shawkat Osman and Syed Shamsul Haq.<ref name="pied"/> Selina Hossain is a prolific female author in the modern era.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Muhammad Zafar Iqbal is a pioneer science fiction writer.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Anisul Hoque is a popular contemporary literary figure.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Lit Fest, organised by the Bangla Academy, are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Architecture

The architecture of Bangladesh is intertwined with that of the Bengal region and the broader Indian subcontinent. It is influenced by the country's culture, religion and history.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Hindu and Buddhist architectural remnants have been found in Mahasthangarh, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="re">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Nandipada and Swastika symbols have been found on stone querns in the Wari-Bateshwar ruins, which indicate the presence of Hinduism in the area during the Iron Age—from 400 to 100 BCE.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Somapura Mahavihara built under the rule of the Buddhist Pala Empire in the 8th century is an outstanding example of the pre-Islamic era.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other Buddhist vihāras include Shalban Bihar in Mainamati and Bikrampur Vihara in Bikrampur.<ref name="re"/>Template:Rp Recent excavations have also uncovered new evidence of pre-Islamic smaller temples which served the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain populations of the area.<ref name="sat"/> Indo-Islamic architecture can be seen from the 13th century, especially in the unique mosque architecture of the Bengal Sultanate, an example being the Sixty Dome Mosque among others in the Mosque City of Bagerhat—which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="sat">Template:Cite web</ref>

Mughal Bengal saw the spread of Mughal architecture in the region. Examples in Dhaka include the Bara Katra and Choto Katra in Old Dhaka, the Sat Gambuj Mosque in Mohammadpur and the Musa Khan Mosque in Curzon Hall.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Notable Mughal-era forts include the Lalbagh Fort in Old Dhaka, the Idrakpur Fort in Munshiganj—and the Hajiganj Fort and the Sonakanda Fort in Narayanganj, respectively.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Panam Nagar in Sonargaon exhibits architectural influence from the Sultanate, Mughal, British and hybrid colonial traditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Indo-Saracenic architecture flourished during the British Raj,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> examples include the Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka, the Chittagong Court Building, Rangpur Town Hall and Rajshahi College. The zamindar gentry built many palaces in the latter style, including the Ahsan Manzil, the Baliati Zamnidar Bari, the Tajhat Palace, the Rose Garden Palace, the Dighapatia Palace, the Puthia Rajbari, Natore Rajbari and the Mohera Zamindar Bari. Muzharul Islam is considered to be a pioneer of modernist movement in Bangladesh and South Asia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Louis Kahn is a notable foreign architect who designed the National Parliament Building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Visual arts, crafts and clothing

The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, notable sculptural Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. The Bengal Sultanate saw Islamic art evolve since the 14th century. During the Mughal rule, Jamdani, a unique design on fine muslin; was woven on Persian motifs in Dhaka.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp It was classified by UNESCO as an Intangible cultural heritage in 2013.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk, a fine silk renowned for its softness and ability to create sophisticated designs.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Rp Ivory, brass and pottery has deep roots in Bangladeshi culture.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Rp The Nakshi Kantha, a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts in Bengal, is made throughout Bangladesh.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape in post-independence East Bengal, especially with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin.<ref name="star">Template:Cite web</ref> Other leading painters include SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Safiuddin Ahmed, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir.<ref name="star"/>

Novera Ahmed is the pioneer of modernist sculpture in Bangladesh.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other eminent sculptors include Nitun Kundu, Syed Abdullah Khalid, Hamiduzzaman Khan, Shamim Sikder, Ferdousi Priyabhashini and Abdur Razzaque.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The annual Mangal Shobhajatra (Bengali New Year parade) organised by the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Dhaka on Pohela Boishakh was enlisted as an Intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Photography as a form of art has seen exponential growth in the 21st century. Chobi Mela, held biennially, is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Lungi is the most common informal clothing for men,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> while kurta (panjabi) and pajama are worn by men on festivals and holidays.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Domestically tailored suits, neckties and pants are customarily worn by men at formal events, and the traditional sherwani and churidar are worn along with the turban in weddings.<ref name="arts"/> Women commonly wear the shalwar kameez accompanied by orna; while sari is worn on more formal events.<ref name="arts">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Some women follow Islamic clothing.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Performing arts

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.<ref name="Ahmed">Template:Cite book</ref> It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms.<ref name="Ahmed"/> The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Apart from the various forms of Indian classical dances, including the Kathakali, Bharatanatyam, Odissi<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Manipuri dances–native dance traditions have formed across the country.<ref name="arts"/>

Music of Bangladesh can be classed into classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular. Classical music in Bangladesh is represented by the common forms of devotional music across the Indian subcontinent; such as the Hindustani classical music genre dhrupad and khayal. Other major forms include qawwali and kirtan.<ref name="arts"/> Rabindra Sangeet and Nazrul Sangeet retain their popularity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Native folk music features the baul mystical tradition, which was popularised by Lalon in the 18th century, and is listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage.<ref name="wei">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="alom"/> Other native lyric-based forms of folk music include bhatiali, bhawaiya, dhamail, kavigan, jarigan, sari gan, marfati, and gombhira.<ref name="arts"/><ref name="alom"/>

Folk music is accompanied by instruments such as the ektara, dotara, dhol, bansuri (a type of flute), mandira, khanjani, sarinda, khamak, dugdugi, juri, jhunjhuni and majira (a type of cymbal).<ref name="alom">Template:Cite web</ref> Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor.<ref>London, Ellen (2004). Bangladesh. Gareth Stevens Pub. p. 29. Template:ISBN.</ref> Musical organisations and schools such as the Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy and Chhayanaut have played significant roles in preserving the traditions of Bengali folk music.<ref name="alom"/>

Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila are considered two of the greatest female playback singers in the country.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Andrew Kishore, another leading playback singer, is considered the "King of Playback".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Azam Khan, nicknamed the "Pop Samrat" and the "Rock Guru", is a founding figure of Bangladeshi rock.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Musicians such as Ayub Bachchu and James have also gained nationwide popularity.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Shayan Chowdhury Arnob has been an influential figure in indie rock.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Popular pop singers in the 21st century include Habib Wahid and Tahsan Rahman Khan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Influential heavy metal include Artcell and Warfaze.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Media and cinema

The history of press in Bangladesh dates back to 1860, when the first printing press was established in Dhaka.<ref name="dr">Template:Cite web</ref> The media in Bangladesh is diverse, competitive, commercial and profitable.<ref name="bbc1">Template:Cite web</ref> Prominent news agencies in Bangladesh include Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (BSS) and Bdnews24.com.<ref name="bbc">Template:Cite web</ref> Television is the most popular form of media consumption.<ref name="bbc1"/> Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the sole state-owned television network with nationwide coverage.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Private television networks include ATN Bangla, Channel I, NTV, RTV, Ekushey TV, Ekattor TV, Jamuna TV and Somoy TV.<ref name="bbc"/> Print media is the second-most widely consumed, and newspapers are privately owned and outspoken, including The Daily Star, Dhaka Tribune, The Financial Express, Bangladesh Pratidin, Kaler Kantho, Prothom Alo, The Daily Ittefaq and Jugantor.<ref name="bbc"/><ref name="bbc1"/> Template:Multiple image

Bangladesh Betar is the lone state-run radio service.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="bbc1"/> Radio Foorti, Radio Today, Radio Aamar and ABC Radio were popular privately owned radio stations; popularity of radio has declined significantly.<ref name="bbc"/><ref name="bbc1"/> Popular foreign media include BBC News (BBC Bangla), CNN, VOA and Al Jazeera.<ref name="bbc1"/> Indian television drama in particular has established a "cultural hegemony" over Bangladeshi satellite television.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="bbc1"/> Freedom of the press remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists. Bangladesh ranked 149th out of the 180 countries listed in the 2025 World Press Freedom Index, among the lowest rankings in the world.Template:Update after<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to a screening of a bioscope in 1898.<ref name="easmin">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="back"/> The Nawabs of Dhaka patronised the production of several silent films from the 1900s.<ref name="back">Template:Cite web</ref> Picture House, the first permanent cinema in Dhaka, began its operation during the year between 1913 and 1914.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp Sukumari (The Good Girl), released in 1929, was the first film produced in Bangladesh.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp Last Kiss, the first full-length feature film, was released in 1931.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp<ref name="back"/> By 1947, a total of 80 cinemas were listed.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp The first Bengali-language film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh (Face and Mask), was released in 1956.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp<ref name="back"/> Akash ar Mati (Sky and Earth), released in 1959, was the second film as such.

The Bangladesh Film Development Corporation was founded in Dhaka as the East Pakistan Film Development Corporation in 1957–1958, as the full-service film production studio.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp<ref name="back"/> Zahir Raihan made various influential films throughout the period, notably Kokhono Asheni in 1961, Shangam in 1964 (the first colour film in Pakistan), and Jibon Theke Neowa in 1970.<ref name="back"/> The film industry in Dhaka positioned itself as the base for a Bengali Muslim cinema from the 1960s and onwards.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp The first movie post-Independence, Ora Egaro Jon, was directed by Chashi Nazrul Islam and released in 1972.<ref name="back"/> At the industry's peak, about 80 movies were produced each year between 1996 and 2003, a number which has constantly declined thereafter.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp<ref name="back"/> Prominent directors include Khan Ataur Rahman, Alamgir Kabir, Amjad Hossain, Humayun Ahmed, Morshedul Islam, Tanvir Mokammel, Tareque Masud, Salahuddin Lavlu and Enamul Karim Nirjhar.<ref name="easmin"/>Template:Rp Tareque Masud was honoured by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film Matir Moina (The Clay Bird). Film societes have played a crucial role in the development of cinema in Bangladesh.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Cuisine

Bangladeshi cuisine, formed by its geographic location and climate, is rich and diverse; sharing its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal.<ref name="cuisine">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The staple dish is white rice, which along with fish, forms the culinary base. Varieties of leaf vegetables, potatoes, gourds and lentils (dal) also play an important role. Curries of beef, mutton, chicken and duck are commonly consumed,<ref name="shaheda">Template:Cite web</ref> along with multiple types of bhortas (mashed vegetables),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> bhajis (stir fried vegetables) and tarkaris (curried vegetables).<ref name="cuisine"/>Template:Rp Mughal-influenced dishes include kormas, kalias, biryanis, pulaos, teharis and khichuris.<ref name="shaheda"/>

Among the various used spices, turmeric, fenugreek, nigella, coriander, anise, cardamom and chili powder are widely used; a famous spice mix is the panch phoron. Condiments and herbs used include red onions, green chillies, garlic, ginger, cilantro, and mint.<ref name="cuisine"/>Template:Rp Coconut milk, mustard paste, mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, achars<ref name="shaheda"/> and chutneys are also widely used in the cuisine.<ref name="cuisine"/>Template:Rp

Fish is the main source of protein, owing to the country's riverine geography, and it is often enjoyed with its roe. The hilsa is the national fish and is immensely popular; a famous dish is shorshe ilish. Other highly consumed fishes include rohu, pangas, and tilapia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Lobsters, shrimps and dried fish (shutki) also play an important role, with the chingri malai curry being a famous shrimp dish.<ref name="cuisine"/>Template:Rp In Chittagong, famous dishes include kala bhuna and mezban, the latter being a traditionally popular feast, featuring the serving of mezbani gosht, a hot and spicy beef curry.<ref name="cuisine"/>Template:Rp<ref name="shaheda"/><ref name="guardiancuisine">Template:Cite web</ref> In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes, a notable one is beef hatkora.<ref name="guardiancuisine"/> Among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, cooking with bamboo shoots is popular.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Khulna is renowned for using chui jhal (piper chaba) in its meat-based dishes.<ref name="guardiancuisine"/><ref name="shaheda"/>

Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets such as the rôshogolla, roshmalai, chomchom, sondesh, mishti doi and kalojaam, and jilapi.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Halwa, shemai and falooda, the latter two being a variation of vermicelli; are popular desserts during religious festivities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Ruti, naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="shaheda"/> Hot milk tea is the most commonly consumed beverage in the country, being at the centre of group conversations.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Borhani, mattha and lassi are popular traditionally consumed beverages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Kebabs are widely popular, particularly seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka and shashlik, along with various types of chaaps.<ref name="shaheda"/> Popular street foods include chotpoti, jhal muri, shingara,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> samosa and fuchka.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

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