Curry

Template:Short description Template:About Template:Good article Template:Pp-move Template:Pp-pc Template:Use British English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Curry timeline Curry is a dish with a spicy sauce or dry flavouring,<ref name=eb/> initially in Indian cuisine, then modified by interchange with the Portuguese, followed by the British, and eventually thoroughly internationalised.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/> Many curries are found in the cuisines of countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia.<ref name="Van Esterik"/>

In medieval India, proto-curries were flavoured with mild spices such as asafoetida, cardamom, coriander, cumin, and ginger, with the modest heat of black pepper.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> A definite step in the creation of modern curry was the arrival in India of spicy hot chili peppers, along with other ingredients such as tomatoes and potatoes, part of the Columbian exchange of plants between the Old World and the New World.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> The Mughal empire brought new subtly-spiced dishes, especially to the north of India.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> During the British Raj, Anglo-Indian cuisine developed,Template:Sfn leading to Hannah Glasse's 18th century recipe for "currey the India way" in England.<ref name="Taylor 2013"/> Curry was then spread in the 19th century by indentured Indian sugar workers to the Caribbean,<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/> and by British traders to Japan.<ref name="Itoh 2011"/> Further exchanges around the world made curry a fully international dish.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/>

Many types of curry exist in different countries.<ref name="eb"/> In Southeast Asia, curry often contains a spice paste and coconut milk.<ref name="Van Esterik"/> In India, the spices are fried in oil or ghee to create a paste; this may be combined with a water-based broth, or sometimes with milk or coconut milk.<ref name=eb/><ref name="Dillon 2024"/> In China and Korea, curries are based on a commercial curry powder.Template:Sfn<ref name="sohn"/> Curry restaurants outside their native countries often adapt their cuisine to suit local tastes; for instance, Thai restaurants in the West sell red, yellow, and green curries with chili peppers of those colours, often combined with additional spices of the same colours.<ref name="Schmidt 2024"/> In Britain, curry is a popular dish with some types adopted from India, others modified or wholly invented, as with chicken tikka masala, created by British Bangladeshi restaurants in the 20th century.<ref name="Dillon 2024"/>

Etymology

The English word curry is derived from a Dravidian root, possibly by way of Dutch carrijl, Portuguese caris or caril, or some combination of these. The Dravidian source may be Tamil Template:Lang kaṟi,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> ("a spiced mixture with fish, meat or vegetable, eaten with boiled rice"<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>), or a mingled borrowing from multiple Dravidian languages.<ref name="Online Etym Dict">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other Dravidian languages, namely Malayalam (കറി kari, "hot condiments; meats, vegetables"<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>), Middle Kannada, Kodava, and Telugu have similar words.<ref name= "Online Etym Dict"/><ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>

Kaṟi is described in a 17th-century Portuguese cookbook,<ref name= "Taylor 2013"/> based on trade with Tamil merchants along the Coromandel Coast of southeast India, becoming known as a "spice blend... called kari podi or curry powder".<ref name="Sahni 1980">Template:Cite book</ref> The first appearance in its anglicised form (spelt currey) was in Hannah Glasse's 1747 book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy.<ref name="Online Etym Dict"/><ref name="Taylor 2013">Template:Cite web</ref>

The term "curry" is not derived from the name of the curry tree, although some curries do include curry leaves among many other spices.<ref name="NPR 2011">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The cookery writer Pat Chapman noted the similarity of the words Karahi or Kadai, an Indian cooking dish shaped like a wok, without giving evidence.<ref name="Gopal 2010">Template:Cite book</ref> "Curry" is not related to the word cury in The Forme of Cury,<ref name="Taylor 2013"/> a 1390s English cookbook;<ref>"Template:Cite book</ref> that term comes from the Middle French word cuire, meaning 'to cook'.<ref name="Online Etym Dict"/>

Cultural exchanges

Ancient spice trade in Asia

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By 1500 BCE, seafaring merchants from Austronesian communities were already trading spices across the ocean. They sailed between South Asia and East Asia, especially the ports along southeastern India and Sri Lanka, creating some of the world's earliest maritime trade networks.<ref name="Manguin2016">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Archaeological discoveries at Mohenjo-daro show that people were using mortar and pestle to grind spices as early as 2600 BCE. They pounded cumin, fennel, garlic, ginger, mustard, black peppercorns, saffron, sesame seed, tamarind pods, and turmeric to create spicy flavourings for their food, which included meat, fish, grains, pulses, and fruits.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Black pepper is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Pepper">Template:Harvnb</ref> The three basic ingredients of the spicy stew were ginger, garlic, and turmeric. Using starch grain analysis, archaeologists identified the residue of these spices in both skeletons and pottery shards from excavations in India, finding that turmeric and ginger were present,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Lawler 2013">Template:Cite web</ref> in what have been called "proto-curries".<ref name="Lawler 2013"/> Sauces in India before Columbus could contain black pepper or long pepper to provide a little heat, but not chili, so they were not spicy hot by modern standards.<ref name="Twilley Graber 2019 transcript">Template:Cite web</ref>

Medieval Indian proto-curries

Before Christopher Columbus, Indian dishes were sometimes spicy but they were never hot like many modern curries, as chili peppers were absent, along with tomatoes, potatoes, bell peppers and squashes. The proto-curries of medieval pre-Columbian India were diverse but not much like modern international curries. Sambar, for example, was a dish of pigeon peas (toor dal) or lentils, flavoured with onions and mild spices.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> Among the key spices used in the period was asafoetida (hīng),<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> a foul-smelling gum from plants of the genus Ferula.<ref name="Sahebkar">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Farhadi2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> Despite its smell, it adds a fine-tasting meaty flavour when it is fried in oil.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/>

Chavundaraya II's 11th century Lokopakara makes use of asafoetida, cumin, curry tree leaves, and mustard to flavour a dal.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> Spices named in the 12th century Mānasollāsa from the Western Chalukya Empire of South India include coriander, cumin, asafoetida, salt, and black pepper.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> The 15th century Ni'matnāmah Naṣir al-Dīn Shāhī from the Malwa Sultanate of Northern India describes flavouring vegetables with asafoetida and sesame seeds fried in ghee (clarified butter), with lime juice and salt.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/>

Early modern trade

The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, brought some new and subtly spiced dishes, especially in the north. The Indo-Persian Mughal cuisine of the emperor Akbar, as described in the Ain-i-Akbari, could cook aubergines (eggplants) with asafoetida, cardamom, cloves, coriander, ginger, lime juice, onions, and pepper.<ref name="Batsha 2020"/> Another influence was the establishment of the Portuguese trading centre in Goa in 1510, resulting in the introduction of chili peppers, tomatoes and potatoes to India from the Americas, as a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange.<ref name="Batsha 2020">Template:Cite web</ref> The food culture scholar Lizzie Collingham suggests that the Portuguese in Goa (in West India) heard and adopted words adopted into a local language from the Dravidian words from South India, becoming caril or carree as transcribed by British travellers of the time. This eventually led to the modern meaning of "curry" as a dish, often spiced, in a sauce or gravy.<ref name="Twilley Graber 2019">Template:Cite news</ref> In 1598, an English translation of a Dutch book about travel in the East Indies mentioned a "somewhat sour" broth called Carriel, eaten with rice.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/> The later Dutch word Template:Lang was used in the Dutch East Indies from the 19th century; many Indians had by then migrated to Southeast Asia.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/>

British influence

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Curry was introduced to English cuisine from Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century, as spicy sauces were added to plain boiled and cooked meats.Template:Sfn That cuisine was created in the British Raj when British wives or memsahibs instructed Indian cooks on the food they wanted, transforming many dishes in the process.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Anglo-Indian">Template:Harvnb</ref> Further, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when there were few British women in India, British men often lived with Indian mistresses, acquiring the local customs, language, and food.Template:Sfn Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Indian cooks in the 19th century prepared curries for their British masters simplified and adjusted to Anglo-Indian taste. For instance, a quarama from Lucknow contained (among other ingredients) ghee, yoghurt, cream, crushed almonds, cloves, cardamom, and saffron; whereas an 1869 Anglo-Indian quorema or korma, "different in substance as well as name",Template:Sfn had no cream, almonds, or saffron, but it added the then-standard British curry spices, namely coriander, ginger, and black peppercorns.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Curry, initially understood as "an unfamiliar set of Indian stews and ragouts",Template:Sfn had become "a dish in its own right, created for the British in India".Template:Sfn Collingham describes the resulting Anglo-Indian cuisine as "eclectic", "pan-Indian", "lacking sophistication", embodying a "passion for garnishes", and forming a "coherent repertoire"; but it was eaten only by the British.Template:Sfn Collingham writes that "The idea of a curry is, in fact, a concept that the Europeans imposed on India's food culture. Indians referred to their different dishes by specific names... But the British lumped all these together under the heading of curry."Template:Sfn

Elsewhere in the 19th century, curry was carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry.<ref name="Mishan 2017"/><ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/>

Globalisation

Since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine.<ref name="Mishan 2017">Template:Cite news</ref> Alan Davidson writes that curry's worldwide extension is a result of the Indian diaspora and globalisation, starting within the British Empire, and followed by economic migrants who brought Indian cuisine to many countries.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry">Template:Harvnb</ref> In 1886, 咖喱 (Gālí) (Chinese pronunciation of "curry") appeared among the Chinese in Singapore.<ref name="Lim 1886">Template:Cite book</ref> Malay Chinese people then most likely brought curry to China.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Curry"/>

In India, spices are always freshly prepared for use in curries.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Powder">Template:Harvnb</ref> Derived from such mixtures (but not containing curry leaves<ref name="Davidson 2014 Leaves">Template:Harvnb</ref>), curry powder is a ready-prepared spice blend first sold by Indian merchants to European colonial traders. This was commercially available from the late 18th century,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="ChaudhuriStrobel1992">Template:Cite book</ref> with brands such as Crosse & Blackwell and Sharwood's persisting to the present.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Curry powder became a standard item in Anglo-Indian cuisine.<ref name="Davidson 2014 Powder"/> British traders introduced the powder to Meiji-era Japan, in the mid-19th century, where it was used to make Japanese curry, known as Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration.<ref name="Itoh 2011">Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn

Types

There are many varieties of curry. The choice of spices for each dish in traditional cuisine depends on regional cultural traditions and personal preferences.<ref name="eb">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Such dishes have names such as dopiaza and rogan josh that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods.Template:Sfn Outside the Indian subcontinent, a curry is a dish from Southeast Asia which uses coconut milk and spice pastes, and is commonly eaten over rice.<ref name="Van Esterik">Template:Cite book</ref> Curries may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, either alone or in combination with vegetables. Others are vegetarian. A masala mixture is a combination of dried or dry-roasted spices commonly homemade for some curries.<ref name=eb/>

Dry curries are cooked using small amounts of liquid, which is allowed to evaporate, leaving the other ingredients coated with the spice mixture. Wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on broth, coconut cream or coconut milk, dairy cream or yogurt, or legume purée, sautéed crushed onion, or tomato purée.<ref name=eb/>

Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices marketed in the West, was first exported to Britain in the 18th century when Indian merchants sold a concoction of spices, similar to garam masala, to the British East India Company returning to Britain.<ref name=eb/> Other commercial mixes include curry pastes and Japanese-style curry roux (in block or powder form).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Ways curries can vary<ref name="Dillon 2024"/><ref name=eb/>
Type of variation	From	To
Mild ↔ Hot	Korma (aromatic spicesTemplate:Efn)	Madras (chili)
Watery ↔ Creamy	Rogan josh (broth)	Korma (yoghurt or cream)
Dry ↔ Wet	Tikka (skewered meat, spices)	Tikka masala (tomato, cream)
Sour ↔ Sweet	Dopiaza (onion, lemon)	Pasanda (almonds, sugar)
Stir-fry ↔ Simmer	Balti (oil, onion, potato)	Dhansak (lentils, spices, tomato)

By region

United Kingdom

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Curry is very popular in the United Kingdom, with a curry house in nearly every town.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was estimated that in 2016 there were 12,000 curry houses, employing 100,000 people and with annual combined sales of approximately £4.2 billion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The food offered is cooked to British taste, but with increasing demand for authentic Indian styles.<ref name=NYT11415>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2001, chicken tikka masala was described by the British foreign secretary Robin Cook as "a true British national dish, not only because it is the most popular, but because it is a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences."<ref name="Cook 2001">Template:Cite news</ref> Its origin is not certain, but many sources attribute it to British Asians; some cite Glasgow as the city of origin.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="ghosh bb">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Others suggest that it derives from butter chicken, popular in the north of India.<ref name="Handbook">Template:Cite book</ref>

Curries in Britain are derived partly from India and partly from invention in local Indian restaurants. They vary from mildly-spiced to extremely hot, with names that are to an extent standardised across the country, but are often unknown in India.<ref name="Dillon 2024">Template:Cite web</ref> Zoe Perrett, writing for The Times of India, comments that anyone expecting traditional Indian cuisine from "Brindian"<ref name="Perrett 2014"/> cuisine, a "Bangla spin on Indian regional dishes, twisted still further to tempt British tastebuds",<ref name="Perrett 2014"/> will be disappointed.<ref name="Perrett 2014">Template:Cite web</ref> Variants like "Kashmir" and "Malaya" curry add fruits like banana, lychees, and pineapple. In short, the food might be, Perrett writes, "not Indian at all."<ref name="Perrett 2014"/> Inexpensive curry kits, containing a packet of whole spices, a packet of spice paste, and a pouch of sauce, are sold in British supermarkets, enabling a curry of "exceptional"<ref name="Hunt 2025"/> quality to be cooked quickly at home.<ref name="Hunt 2025">Template:Cite news</ref>

Range of strengths of British curries<ref name="Dillon 2024"/>
Strength	Example	Place of origin	Date of origin	Description
Mild	Korma	Mughal court, modified to Anglo-Indian taste Template:Sfn	16th century	Mild, creamy; may have almond, coconut, or fruit
Medium	Madras	British Bangladeshi restaurants	1970s	Red, spicy with chili powder
Hot	Vindaloo	British Bangladeshi restaurantsTemplate:Efn	1970s	Very spicy with chili peppers and potatoes.Template:Efn Not like the earlier Portuguese version.Template:Efn<ref name="Dillon 2024"/>
Extreme	Phall	British Bangladeshi, Birmingham	20th century	High-strength chili pepper e.g. scotch bonnet, habanero

South Asia

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Spicy Indian dishes were until the late 20th century not called "curry" by Indians: the term was initially limited to Anglo-Indian cuisine. Instead, numerous Indian dishes like dopiaza and rogan josh had their own names; the historian of food Colleen Sen notes that the Indian cook Madhur Jaffrey found the umbrella term 'curry' "degrading to India's great cuisine",Template:Sfn but eventually accepted the category in her later writings.Template:Sfn Both the names of the dishes and their methods of preparation are often regional.<ref name="Jaffrey 1982"/>

Indian curry sauces are made with spices including black pepper, cardamom, chili peppers, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, fennel seed, mustard seed, and turmeric.<ref name="Jaffrey 1982"/> As many as 15 spices may be used for a meat curry.<ref name="Jaffrey 1982"/> The spices are sometimes fried whole, sometimes roasted, sometimes ground and mixed into a paste.<ref name="Jaffrey 1982"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The sauces are eaten with steamed rice or idli rice cakes in south India,<ref name="Jaffrey 1982">Template:Cite book</ref> and breads such as chapatis, roti, and naan in the north.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The popular rogan josh, for example, from Kashmiri cuisine, is a wet dish of lamb with a red gravy coloured by Kashmiri chillies and an extract of the red flowers of the cockscomb plant (mawal).<ref>"Rogan Josh". In Khan Mohammed Sharief Waza, Khan Mohammed Shafi Waza, and Khan Mohammed Rafiq Waza (2007). Wazwaan: Traditional Kashmiri Cuisine. New Delhi: Roli & Janssen. p. 34.</ref> Rice and curry is the staple dish of Sri Lanka.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The Indian cook Madhur Jaffrey initially objected to the Anglo-Indian term "curry", but came around to using it.Template:Sfn
Traditional Indian karahi (left) and handi (right) serving dishes
Rogan josh, a Kashmiri curry
A North Indian thali curry meal

East Asia

Japanese curry is usually eaten as Template:Lang – curry, rice, and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish. It is less spicy and seasoned than Indian and Southeast Asian curries, being more of a thick stew than a curry. British people brought curry from the Indian colony back to Britain<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and introduced it to Japan during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (Template:Lang), and curry in Japan was categorised as a Western dish.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Its spread across the country is attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the dish. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force traditionally have curry every Friday for lunch and many ships have their own recipes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The standard Japanese curry contains onions, carrots, potatoes, and sometimes celery, and a meat that is cooked in a large pot. Sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness and other vegetables are sometimes used instead.<ref>"The Curry Rice Research". Template:Webarchive (in Japanese)</ref>

Curry spread to other regions of Asia. Curry powder is added to some dishes in the southern part of China. The curry powder sold in Chinese grocery stores is similar to Madras curry powder, but with the addition of star anise and cinnamon.Template:Sfn The former Portuguese colony of Macau has its own culinary traditions and curry dishes, including Galinha à portuguesa ("Portuguese-style chicken") and curry crab. Portuguese sauce is a sauce flavoured with curry and thickened with coconut milk.<ref name="HoustonPTChicken">Template:Cite news</ref>

Curry was popularized in Korean cuisine when Ottogi entered the Korean food industry with an imported curry powder in 1969.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="sohn">Template:Cite news</ref> Korean curry powder contains spices including cardamom, chili, cinnamon, and turmeric.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Curry tteokbokki is made of tteok (rice cakes), eomuk (fish cakes), eggs, vegetables, and gochujang, fermented red chili paste. As in India, chilis were brought to Korea by European traders. Spicy chili sauce then replaced the soy sauce formerly used in tteokbokki.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Japanese style Template:Lang
(curry rice)
Korean tteokbokki
(rice cake curry)
Macau's Galinha à portuguesa
(chicken in portuguese sauce)

Southeast Asia

In Burmese cuisine, curries are broadly called hin. Burmese curries contains meat simmered in a curry paste containing onion, garlic, shrimp paste, tomato, and turmeric. Burmese curries are often mild, without chili, and somewhat oily.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Thai curries are called Template:Lang, and usually consist of meat, fish or vegetables in a sauce based on a paste made from chilies, onions or shallots, garlic, and shrimp paste.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A few stir-fried Thai dishes use Template:Lang, an Indian style curry powder.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the West, Thai curries are often colour-coded green, yellow, and red, with green usually the mildest, red the hottest. Green curry is flavoured with green chili, coriander, kaffir lime, and basil; yellow, with yellow chili and turmeric; and red, with red chili.<ref name="Schmidt 2024">Template:Cite web</ref>

Malaysian Indian cuisine adapted curries (such as Template:Lang, with coconut milk) via the region's Indian population,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> but it has become a staple among the Malay and Chinese populations there. Malaysian curries have many varieties, but are often flavoured with cumin, cinnamon, turmeric, coconut milk, shallots, chili peppers, and garlic.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Indian Indonesian cuisine consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Indonesia. Curry in Indonesian is kari and in Javanese, kare. In Indonesian cuisine especially in Bandung, there is a dish called lontong kari, a combined of lontong and beef yellow curry soup.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In Javanese cuisine, kare rajungan, blue swimmer crab curry has become a delicacy of Tuban Regency, East Java.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Vietnamese cuisine, influenced by both Thai and Indian cooking, curry is known as cà ri.<ref name="Nguyen 2024"/> Curry was brought to Vietnam by French colonisers, from their Indian outpost at Pondicherry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the south of the country in particular, the Vietnamese adopted Madras curry powder and coconut milk as the basis of dishes such as chicken lemongrass curry, cà ri gà.Template:Sfn<ref name="Nguyen 2024">Template:Cite web</ref>

In the Philippines, a dish that may have been directly inspired by Indian curries is the oxtail stew Template:Lang, possibly influenced by Sepoy expatriates during the brief British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), or indirectly via Southeast Asian spicy dishes.<ref name="Villar">Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Lang are native dishes using coconut milk,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which as in the case of Filipino chicken curry can be called 'curries' when curry powder is added.<ref name="pp">Template:Cite web</ref>

Indonesian mutton gulai (curry), part of nasi padang
Burmese curries
Filipino chicken curry
Thai phanaeng with pork
Vietnamese cà ri with chicken

South Africa

Curry spread to South Africa with the migration of people from the Indian subcontinent to the region in the colonial era. African curries, Cape Malay curries and Natal curries include the traditional Natal curry, the Durban curry, bunny chow, and roti rolls. South African curries appear to have been created in both KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape, while others developed across the country over the late 20th and early 21st centuries to include ekasi, coloured, and Afrikaner varieties.<ref name="seid">Template:Cite news</ref> Durban has the largest population of Indians outside of India in the world.<ref name="ishay">Template:Cite web</ref> Bunny chow or a "set", a South African standard, consists of either lamb, chicken or bean curry poured into a tunnelled-out loaf of bread to be eaten with one's fingers by dipping pieces of the bread into it.<ref name=seid/><ref name=ishay/> 'Bunny chow' means 'Indian food', from Banian, an Indian. The method of serving the curry was created because apartheid forbade black people from eating in Indian restaurants; the loaves could speedily be taken away and eaten in the street.Template:Sfn

Notes

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References

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Sources

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Curry

Contents

Etymology