Early Germanic calendars

Template:Short description The early Germanic calendars were the regional calendars used among the early Germanic peoples before they adopted the Julian calendar in the Early Middle Ages. The calendars were an element of early Germanic culture.

The Germanic peoples had names for the months that varied by region and dialect, but they were later replaced with local adaptations of the Julian month names. Records of Old English and Old High German month names date to the 8th and 9th centuries, respectively. Old Norse month names are attested from the 13th century. As with most pre-modern calendars, the reckoning used in early Germanic culture was likely lunisolar. As an example, the Runic calendar developed in medieval Sweden was lunisolar, fixing the beginning of the year at the first full moon after winter solstice.

Months

The Germanic calendars were lunisolar, the months corresponding to lunations. Tacitus writes in his Germania (Chapter 11) that the Germanic peoples observed the lunar months.

The lunisolar calendar is reflected in the Proto-Germanic term Template:Wikt-lang "month" (Old English Template:Wikt-lang, Old Saxon Template:Wikt-lang, Old Norse Template:Wikt-lang, and Old High German Template:Wikt-lang,<ref name="OHG Dictionary: M">Template:Cite book</ref> Gothic Template:Wikt-lang<ref name="OHG Dictionary: M"/><ref name="Online Etymology Dictionary">Month Online Etymology Dictionary</ref>), being a derivation of the word for "moon", Template:Wikt-lang—which shares its ancestry with the Greek mene "moon", men "month", and Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "month".

Days and weeks

Tacitus gives some indication of how the Germanic peoples of the first century reckoned the days. In contrast to Roman usage, they considered the day to begin at sunset, a system that in the Middle Ages came to be known as the "Florentine reckoning". The same system is also recorded for the Gauls in Caesar's Gallic Wars.

"They assemble, except in the case of a sudden emergency, on certain fixed days, either at new or at full moon; for this they consider the most auspicious season for the transaction of business. Instead of reckoning by days as we do, they reckon by nights, and in this manner fix both their ordinary and their legal appointments. Night they regard as bringing on day."<ref>{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}</ref>

The concept of the week, on the other hand, was adopted from the Romans, from about the first century, the various Germanic languages having adopted the Greco-Roman system of naming of the days of the week after the classical planets, inserting loan translations for the names of the planets, substituting the names of Germanic gods in a process known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

Calendar terms

The year was divided into a summer half and a winter half, as attested in Old English and medieval Scandinavian sources. In Scandinavia this continued after Christianization; in Norway and Sweden the first day of summer is marked by the Template:Ill (14 April) and the first day of winter by the Calixtus Day (14 October).<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>

The month names do not coincide, so it is not possible to postulate names of a Common Germanic stage, except possibly the names of a spring month and a winter month, Template:Wikt-lang and Template:Wikt-lang. The names of the seasons are Common Germanic, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, and Template:Wikt-lang for "spring" in north Germanic, but in west Germanic the term Template:Wikt-lang was used. The Common Germanic terms for "day", "month" and "year" were Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang and Template:Wikt-lang. The latter two continue Proto-Indo-European Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, while Template:Wikt-lang is a Germanic innovation from a root Template:Wikt-lang meaning "to be hot, to burn".

A number of terms for measuring time can be reconstructed for the proto-Germanic period.

modern English	Proto- Germanic	Old English	English	Scots	West Frisian	Dutch	Low Saxon	German	Old Norse	Icelandic	Faroese	Swedish	Norwegian		Danish	Gothic
Term													Nynorsk	Bokmål
daytime, 24 hour period	*dagaz	dæġ, dōgor	day	day, dey	dei	dag	Dag	Tag	dagr, dǿgn / dǿgr	dagur	dagur	dag, dygn	dag, døgn/døger	dag, døgn	dag, døgn	𐌳𐌰𐌲𐍃
night time	*nahts	niht	night	nicht	nacht	nacht	Nacht	Nacht	nátt	nótt	nátt	natt	natt	natt	nat	𐌽𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃
week	*wikǭ	ƿiċe	week	wouk	wike	week	Wekke	Woche	vika	vika	vika	vecka	veke	uke	uge	𐍅𐌹𐌺𐍉
month	*mēnōþs	mōnaþ	month	month	moanne	maand	Mohnd (maond)	Monat	mánaðr	mánuður	mánaður	månad	månad	måned	måned	𐌼𐌴𐌽𐍉𐌸𐍃
year	*jērą	ġēar	year	year, ear	jier	jaar	Johr (jaor)	Jahr	ár	ár	ár	år	år	år	år	𐌾𐌴𐍂
interval / timespan / period	*tīdiz	tīd	tide	tide	tiid	tijd	Tiet	Zeit	tíð	tíð	tíð	tid	tid	tid	tid	*𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌳𐌹𐍃
hour / timespan / period	*tīmô	tīma	time	time					tími	tími	tími	timme	time	time	time	*𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌼𐌰
Spring	*langatīnaz	lencten	Lent	Lentren	linte	lente	Lent	Lenz								*𐌻𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌰𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃
Spring	*wazrą-								vár	vor	vár	vår	vår	vår	forår (vår)	*𐍅𐌰𐌶𐍂
Summer	*sumaraz	sumor	summer	simmer	simmer	zomer	Sommer	Sommer	sumar	sumar	summar	sommar	sommar / sumar	sommer	sommer	*𐍃𐌿𐌼𐌰𐍂𐍃
Autumn / Fall	*harbistaz	hærfest	harvest	hairst	hjerst	herfst	Harvst	Herbst	haustr	haust	heyst	höst	haust	høst	efterår (høst)	*𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌱𐌹𐍃𐍄𐍃
Winter	*wintruz	ƿinter	winter	winter	winter	winter	Winter	Winter	vintr / vetr	vetur	vetur	vinter	vinter / vetter	vinter	vinter	𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍄𐍂𐌿𐍃

Month names

Medieval

Bede's Latin work De temporum ratione (The Reckoning of Time), written in 725, describes Old English month names. Bede mentions intercalation, the intercalary month being inserted around midsummer.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>

The following is an English translation<ref name=Beade-Willis-1999/> of Bede's Latin text:

"It did not seem [right] to me that I should speak of other nations' observance of the year and yet be silent about my own nation's.<ref name=Beade-Willis-1999/>

In the old days the English people calculated their months according to the course of the moon. Hence, after the manner of the Greeks and the Romans, [the months] take their names from the Moon, for the Moon is called mona and the month monath.

1. The first month, which the Latins call January, is Ġiuli;
2. February is called Solmonath;
3. March Hrethmonath;
4. April, Eosturmonath;
5. May, Thrimilchi;
6. June, Litha;
7. July [is] also [called] Litha;
8. August, Weodmonath;
9. September, Helegmonath;
10. October, Winterfilleth;
11. November, Blodmonath;
12. December, Ġiuli – the same name by which January is called.<ref name="Beade-Willis-1999" />

They began the year on the 8th kalends of January [25 December], when we celebrate the birth of the Lord. That very night, which we hold so sacred, they used to call by the heathen word Modranecht, that is, "mother's night", because (we suspect) of the ceremonies they enacted all that night.<ref name=Beade-Willis-1999/>

Whenever it was a common year, they gave three lunar months to each season. When a year with an embolismic month occurred (that is, one with 13 lunar months – instead of the usual 12) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name "Litha"; hence they called [the embolismic] year "Thrilithi". It had four summer months, with the usual three for the other seasons.

But originally, they divided the year as a whole into two seasons: summer and winter. They assigned the six months in which the days are longer than the nights to summer, and the other six to winter. Hence they called the month in which the winter season began "Winterfilleth", a name made up from "winter" and "full moon", because winter began on the full Moon of that month.<ref name="Beade-Willis-1999" />

Nor is it irrelevant if we take the trouble to translate the names of the other months:

1. The [two] months of Giuli derive their name from the day when the Sun turns back [and begins] to increase, because one of [these months] precedes [this day] and the other follows.<ref name="Beade-Willis-1999" />
2. Solmonath can be called "month of cakes", which they offered to their gods in that month.
3. Hrethmonath is named for their goddess Hretha, to whom they sacrificed at this time.
4. Eosturmonath has a name which is now translated "Paschal month", and which was once called after a goddess of theirs named Eostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month. Now they designate that Paschal season by her name, calling the joys of the new rite by the time-honoured name of the old observance.
5. Thrimilchi was so called because in that month the cattle were milked three times a day; such at one time, was the fertility of Britain or Germany, from whence the English nation came to Britain.
6. Litha means "gentle" or "navigable", because in both these months the calm breezes are gentle, and they were wont to sail upon the smooth sea.
7. Weodmonath means "month of tares (weeds)", for they are very plentiful then.
8. Helegmonath means "month of sacred rites".
9. Winterfilleth can be called by the invented composite name "winter-full".
10. Blodmonath is "month of immolations", for then the cattle which were to be slaughtered were consecrated to their gods.

Good Jesu, thanks be to thee, who hast turned us away from these vanities and given us [grace] to offer to thee the sacrifice of praise."<ref name=Beade-Willis-1999> Template:Cite book </ref>

Charlemagne (r. 768–814) recorded agricultural Old High German names for the Julian months.Template:Efn These month- and seasonal-names remained in use, with regional variants and innovations, until the end of the Middle Ages across German-speaking Europe, and they persisted in popular or dialectal use into the 19th century.Template:Efn

The only agreement between the Old English and the Old High German (Carolingian) month names is the naming of April as "Easter month". Both traditions have a "holy month"; however, it is the name of September in the Old English system and of December in the Old High German one.

A separate tradition of month names developed in 10th century Iceland, see #Icelandic calendar.

Julian month	Old English<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>	Old High German<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>
January	lang}} "After Yule", or "Second Yule"	lang}} "Winter month" <ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>
February	lang}} ('mud month'Template:Efn)	lang}} "Horn-shedding (of stags)"<ref name=":0" />Template:Efn
March	lang}} "Month of the Goddess Hrēþ" or "Month of Wildness"<ref name=Köbler-OHGDict-H/>	lang}} "Spring month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
April	lang}} "Easter Month", "Month of the Goddess Ēostre" or "Month of Dawn"<ref name=Köbler-OHGDict-E>Template:Cite book</ref>	lang}} "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
May	lang}} "Month of Three Milkings"<ref name=Köbler-OHGDict-D>Template:Cite book</ref>	lang}} "Pasture month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Joy month"<ref name=":1" />
June	lang}} "Before Midsummer", or "First Summer"	lang}} "Break (ground) month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Plough month"<ref name=":1" />
—	lang}} "Third (Mid)summer" (leap month)	—
July	lang}} "After Midsummer", "Second Summer"	lang}} "Hay month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
August	lang}} "Weed month"	lang}} "Ears (of grain) month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Harvest month"<ref name=":1" />
September	lang}} "Holy Month"	lang}} "Wood month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
October	lang}} "Winter full moon"Template:Efn	lang}} "Vintage month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
November	lang}} "Blót Month", "Month of Sacrifice" or "Month of bloodshed"<ref group=lower-alpha> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} meaning "blood month" is probably a reference to the regular slaughter of those livestock that were not going to be kept through the winter, at the end of the last pasturing season, when they would begin to need fodder that was saved to feed the rest over the coming winter. So in addition to any religious sacrifice, the slaughter was also practical. Compare Blōt-mōnaþ = "blood month" with Welsh: Tachwedd = "slaughtering", and Finnish Marraskuu = "Moon of death". </ref>	lang}} "Harvest month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> or "Autumn month"<ref name=":1" />
December	lang}} "Before Yule", or "First Yule"	lang}} "Holy month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Modern correspondences

The Old High German month names introduced by Charlemagne persisted in regional usage and survive in German dialectal usage. The Latin month names were in predominant use throughout the medieval period, although the Summarium Heinrici, an 11th century pedagogical compendium, in chapter II.15 (De temporibus et mensibus et annis) advocates the use of the German month names rather than the more widespread Latin ones.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the late medieval to early modern period, dialectal or regional month names were adopted for use in almanacs, and a number of variants or innovations developed, comparable to the tradition of "Indian month names" developed in American Farmers' Almanacs in the early 20th century. Some of the Farmers' Almanacs' "Indian month names" are in fact derived from continental tradition.Template:Efn The Old English month names fell out of use entirely, being revived only in a fictional context in the Shire calendar constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien for use in his The Lord of the Rings.

Julian month	Old High German<ref name=":2" />	Middle High German	DutchTemplate:Efn	West Frisian<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Citation needed
January	lang}} "Winter month" <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}}Template:Efn	lang}} ("tanning month")	lang}} ("fore month")
February	lang}} "Horn-shedding (of stags)"<ref name=":0" />Template:Efn	lang}}<ref name=Hartman/>Template:Efn	lang}} Template:Nobr {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("bissextile month")	lang}} Template:Nobr
March	lang}} "Spring month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("spring month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("dry month") MHG lenzemânotTemplate:Efn	lang}} ("spring month")	lang}} ("spring month")
April	lang}} "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("Easter month")Template:Efn	lang}} ("grass month" ≈ Fr.R.Cal. Prairial)	lang}} ("grass month")
May	lang}} "Pasture month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Joy month"<ref name=":1" />	lang}} Template:NobrTemplate:Efn	lang}} Template:Nobr, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("flower month" = Fr.R.Cal. Floréal), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Mary's month")	lang}} ("bloom month")
June	lang}} "Break (ground) month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Plough month"<ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("fallow month")Template:Efn	lang}} ("summer month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("woad month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("weed month")	lang}} ("summer month")
July	lang}} "Hay month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("haying month")Template:Efn	lang}} ("pasture month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("hay month")	lang}} ("haying month")
August	lang}} "Ears (of grain) month"<ref name=":0" /> or "Harvest month"<ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("harvest month")	lang}} ("harvest month" ≈ Fr.R.Cal. Messidor,Template:Efn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("corn month")	lang}} ("harvest month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("flea month")
September	lang}} "Wood month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("autumn month")Template:Efn	lang}} ("autumn month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("barley month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("oats month")	lang}} ("autumn month")
October	lang}} "Vintage month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("vintage month"),Template:Efn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref name=Herbstmonat/> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("yellowing")Template:Efn	lang}} ("wine month"), Wijnoogstmaand ("vintage month" = Fr.R.Cal. Vendémiaire), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("sowing month")	lang}} ("wine month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Nobr
November	lang}} "Harvest month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> or "Autumn month"<ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("winter month"),<ref name=Hartman/>Template:Efn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name=Herbstmonat/>Template:Efn	lang}} ("slaughter month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("blood month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("fog month" ≈ Fr.R.Cal. Brumaire), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Nobr	lang}} ("slaughter month")
December	lang}} "Holy month"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />	lang}} ("Christ month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("holy month")<ref name="Hartman"/><ref name="Wolfmonat"/>	lang}} ("winter month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Midwinter month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("snow month" = Fr.R.Cal. Nivôse), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Christmas month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Yule month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("wolves' month"),<ref name=Wolfmonat/> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("dark month")	lang}} ("winter month"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Yule month")

Icelandic calendar

A special case is the Icelandic calendar, developed in the 10th century. Inspired by the Julian calendar, it introduced a purely solar reckoning with a year, having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of Julian leap days.

The old Icelandic calendar is not in official use anymore, but some Icelandic holidays and annual feasts are still calculated from it. It has 12 months, of 30 days broken down into two groups of six often termed "winter months" and "summer months". The calendar is peculiar in that each month always start on the same day of week. This was achieved by having 4 epagomenal days to bring the number of days up to 364, and then adding a sumarauki week in the middle of summer of some years. This was eventually done so as to ensure that the "summer season" begins on the Thursday between 9 and 15 April in the Julian calendar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Full citation needed Hence {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} always starts on a Friday sometime between 8 and 15 January of the Julian calendar, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} always starts on a Sunday between 7 and 14 February of the Julian calendar.

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Short days"
1	lang}}	"slaughter month" or "Gór's month"	mid October – mid November
2	lang}}	"Yule month"	mid November – mid December
3	lang}}	"fat sucking month"	mid December – mid January
4	lang}}	"frozen snow month"	mid January – mid February
5	lang}}	"Góa's month"	mid February – mid March
6	lang}}	"lone month" or "single month"	mid March – mid April
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Nightless days"
1	lang}}Template:Efn	(goddess?)Template:Efn	mid April – mid May
2	lang}}	(goddess?)Template:Efn	mid May – mid June
3	lang}}	"sun month"	mid June – mid July
4	lang}}	"hay working month"	mid July – mid August
5	lang}}	"two month" or "second month"	mid August – mid September
6	lang}}	"autumn month"	mid September – mid October

Many of the months have also been used in Scandinavia, the Norwegian linguist Ivar Aasen wrote down the following months in his dictionary,<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> coming in this order:

Jolemåne Torre Gjø-Kvina

Two of the names are identical to Iceland, and other is similar. They have developed differently in different regions. Þorri is pronounced "tærri", "torre" and similar, and can mean both the moon after Yule-month, or be a name for January or February.<ref> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref>

See also

• Ásatrú holidays
• Runic calendar

External links and references

• Northvegr article on dating Template:Webarchive
• Facts and Figures: The Norse WayTemplate:Dead link General information on old Germanic culture, including time.
• Template:In lang Old High German dictionary, including month names
• Template:In lang Old Norse dictionary, including month names
• Template:In lang Old English dictionary, including month names
• Anglo-Saxon month names