Modern Hebrew phonology
Template:Short description Template:WikiIPA Template:IPA notice Modern Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants and 5 vowels,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> depending on the speaker and the analysis.
Hebrew has been used primarily for liturgical, literary, and scholarly purposes for most of the past two millennia. As a consequence, its pronunciation was strongly influenced by the vernacular of individual Jewish communities. With the revival of Hebrew as a native language, and especially with the establishment of Israel, the pronunciation of the modern language rapidly coalesced.
The two main accents of modern Hebrew are Oriental and Non-Oriental.Template:Sfnp Oriental Hebrew was chosen as the preferred accent for Israel by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, but has since declined in popularity.Template:Sfnp The description in this article follows the language as it is pronounced by native Israeli speakers of the younger generations.
Oriental and non-Oriental accents
According to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, in the 1880s (the time of the beginning of the Zionist movement and the Hebrew revival) there were three groups of Hebrew regional accents: Ashkenazi (Eastern European), Sephardi (Southern European), and Mizrahi (Middle Eastern, Iranian, and North African). Over time features of these systems of pronunciation merged, and at present scholars identify two main pronunciations of modern (i.e., not liturgical) Hebrew: Oriental and Non-Oriental.Template:Sfnp Oriental Hebrew displays traits of an Arabic substrate.<ref name=Schwarzwald524>Ora (Rodrigue) Schwarzwald. "Modern Hebrew", in Khan, Geoffrey, Michael P. Streck, and Janet CE Watson (eds.). The Semitic languages: an international handbook. Edited by Stefan Weninger. Vol. 36. Walter de Gruyter, 2011. p. 524-25</ref> Elder oriental speakers tend to use an alveolar trill {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, preserve the pharyngeal consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and (less commonly) {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref>Zuckermann, G. (2005). "Abba, why was Professor Higgins trying to teach Eliza to speak like our cleaning lady?: Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language", Australian Journal of Jewish Studies 19, pp. 210-231.</ref> preserve gemination, and pronounce {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in some places where non-Oriental speakers do not have a vowel (the shva na). A limited number of Oriental speakers, for example elderly Yemenite Jews, even maintain some pharyngealized (emphatic) consonants also found in Arabic, such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for Biblical {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Israeli Arabs ordinarily use the Oriental pronunciation, vocalising the ‘ayin (Template:Script/Hebrew) as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, resh (ר) as [r] and, less frequently, the ḥet (Template:Script/Hebrew) as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
Pronunciation of Template:Angbr
Non-Oriental (and General Israeli) pronunciation lost the emphatic and pharyngeal sounds of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of European languages (Slavic and Germanic for Ashkenazim and Romance for Sephardim). The pharyngeals Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink are preserved by older Oriental speakers.<ref name=Schwarzwald524/> Dialectally, Georgian Jews pronounce {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as Template:IPAblink, while Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it Template:IPAblink, a pronunciation that can also be found in the Italian tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany.Template:Citation needed However, according to Sephardic and Ashkenazic authorities, such as the Mishnah Berurah and the Shulchan Aruch and Mishneh Torah, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is the proper pronunciation. Thus, it is still pronounced as such by some Sephardim and Ashkenazim.
Pronunciation of Template:Angbr
The classical pronunciation associated with the consonant {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} rêš was a flap Template:IPAblink, and was grammatically ungeminable. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a flap or a trill Template:IPAblink. However, in some Ashkenazi dialects of northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill Template:IPAblink or a fricative Template:IPAblink. This was because most native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and the liturgical Hebrew of these speakers carried the Yiddish pronunciation. Some Iraqi Jews also pronounce rêš as a uvular Template:IPAblink, reflecting Baghdad Jewish Arabic.
Though an Ashkenazi Jew in the Russian Empire, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda based his Standard Hebrew on Sephardi Hebrew, originally spoken in Spain, and therefore recommended an alveolar Template:IPAblink. However, just like him, the first waves of Jews to resettle in the Holy Land were Ashkenazi, and Standard Hebrew would come to be spoken with their native pronunciation. Consequently, by now nearly all Israeli Jews pronounce the consonant {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} rêš as a uvular approximant ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}),Template:Sfnp<ref name="Zuckermann">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp which also exists in Yiddish.<ref name="Zuckermann"/>Template:Rp
Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin, and pronounced the Hebrew rhotic consonant {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as an alveolar trill, identical to Arabic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, and which followed the conventions of old Hebrew.<ref>Based on Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Judeo-Arabic commentary on “Sefer Yetzirah” (chapter 4, paragraph 3), wherein he describes the phonetic sounds of the 22 characters of the Hebrew alphabet and classifies them in groups based on their individual sounds: “Aleph ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), hé ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), ḥet ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), ‘ayin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are [guttural sounds] produced from the depth of the tongue with the opening of the throat, but bet ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), waw ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), mim ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), pé ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are [labial sounds] made by the release of the lips and the end of the tongue; whereas gimel ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), yōd ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), kaf ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), quf ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are [palatals] separated by the width of the tongue [against the palate] with the [emission of] sound. However, daleth ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), ṭet ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), lamed ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), nūn ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), tau ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are [linguals] separated by the mid-section of the tongue with the [emission of] sound; whereas zayin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), samekh ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), ṣadi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), resh ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), shin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are [dental sounds] produced between the teeth by a tongue that is at rest.”</ref> In modern Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi poetry and folk music, as well as in the standard (or "standardised") Hebrew used in the Israeli media, an alveolar rhotic is sometimes used.
Consonants
The following table lists the consonant phonemes of Israeli Hebrew in IPA transcription:Template:Sfnp
- * Phoneme was introduced through loanwords.
- 1 Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp In modern Hebrew {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for ח has merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (which was traditionally used only for fricative כ) into {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Some older Mizrahi speakers still separate these (as explained above).Template:Sfnp {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often realized as a voiceless uvular trill {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfnp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- 2 The glottal consonants tend to be elided,<ref name="brill"/> which is most common in unstressed syllables. In informal speech, elision may occur in stressed syllables as well, whereas in careful or formal speech, glottals may be retained in all positions. In modern Hebrew {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for ע has been absorbed by {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which was traditionally used only for Template:Script/Hebrew. Again, some speakers still separate these.Template:Sfnp
- 3 {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually pronounced as a uvular approximant Template:IPAblink, and sometimes as a uvular trill Template:IPAblink, alveolar trill Template:IPAblink or alveolar flap Template:IPAblink, depending on the background of the speaker.<ref name="brill">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- 4 While the phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} Template:Script/Hebrew was introduced through borrowings,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> it can appear in native words as a sequence of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} Template:Script/Hebrew and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} Template:Script/Hebrew as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
For many young speakers, obstruents assimilate in voicing. Voiceless obstruents (stops/affricates {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and fricatives {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) become voiced ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) when they appear immediately before voiced obstruents, and vice versa. For example:
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to close'), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('a right'), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('a bill'), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('a printer'), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('security'), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is pronounced Template:IPAblink before velar consonants.Template:Sfnp
Illustrative words
| Letter | Example word | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Hebrew | IPA | Hebrew | English |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | mouth |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | what |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | baker |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | jackal |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | fleet |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | end |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | miracle |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | passion |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | year |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | day |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | all |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | how |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | hot |
| Letter | Example word | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Hebrew | IPA | Hebrew | English |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | interview |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | son |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | harp |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | fuel |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | this |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | no |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | giraffe |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | beige |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | penguin |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | also |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | head |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | with |
| main}} | Template:Script/Hebrew | main}} | lang}} | echo |
Historical sound changes
Standard Israeli Hebrew (SIH) phonology, based on the Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation tradition, has a number of differences from Biblical Hebrew (BH) and Mishnaic Hebrew (MH) in the form of splits and mergers.<ref>Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.</ref>
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink merged into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink merged into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink generally merge into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or became silent, but the distinction is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim and is reintroduced in the speech of some other speakers.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink had two allophones, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and Template:IPAblink, which split into separate phonemes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in SIH.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink had two allophones, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and Template:IPAblink. The {{#invoke:IPA|main}} allophone merged with Template:IPAslink into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. A new phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was introduced in loanwords (see Hebrew vav as consonant), so SIH has phonemic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink had two allophones, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and Template:IPAblink. The {{#invoke:IPA|main}} allophone merged with Template:IPAslink into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, while the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} allophone merged with Template:IPAslink into SIH {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, though a distinction between {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim.
- BH/MH Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink merged into their plosive counterparts, Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink de-pharyngealized and affricated to SIH Template:IPAslink.
- BH/MH Template:IPAslink backed to SIH Template:IPAslink; the former pronunciation is still used by Sephardi and Mizrahi speakers.
Spirantization
The consonant pairs Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink (archaically Template:IPAblink), Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink (archaically Template:IPAblink), and Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink (archaically Template:IPAblink) were historically allophonic, as a consequence of a phenomenon of spirantization known as begadkefat under the influence of the Aramaic language on BH/MH. In Modern Hebrew, the above six sounds are phonemic.
The full inventory of Hebrew consonants which undergo and/or underwent spirantization are:
However, the above-mentioned allophonic alternation of BH/MH Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink–Template:IPAblink was lost in Modern Hebrew, with these six allophones merging into simple {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
These phonemic changes were partly due to the mergers noted above, to the loss of consonant gemination, which had distinguished stops from their fricative allophones in intervocalic position, and the introduction of syllable-initial Template:IPAslink and non-syllable-initial Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink in loan words. Spirantization still occurs in verbal and nominal derivation, but now the alternations {{#invoke:IPA|main}}–{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}–{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}–{{#invoke:IPA|main}} are phonemic rather than allophonic.
Loss of final H consonant
In Traditional Hebrew words can end with an H consonant, e.g. when the suffix "-ah" is used, meaning "her" (see Mappiq). The final H sound is hardly ever pronounced in Modern Hebrew. However, the final H with Mappiq still retains the guttural characteristic that it should take a patach and render the pronunciation /a(h)/ at the end of the word, for example, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gavoa(h) ("tall").
Vowels
Modern Hebrew has a simple five-vowel system.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Low | Template:IPA link |
Vowel length is non-contrastive and consecutive identical vowels are allowed in the case of glottal consonant elision, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="brill"/>
There are two diphthongs, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfnp
| Phoneme | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:IPA link | main}} | lang}} | 'man' |
| Template:IPA link | main}} | lang}} | 'red' (f) |
| Template:IPA link | main}} | lang}} | 'mother' |
| Template:IPA link | main}} | lang}} | 'light' |
| Template:IPA link | main}} | lang}} | 'father' |
Vowel length
In most Masoretic traditions of Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (Template:Transliteration). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in Modern Hebrew, except that {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in Ashkenazi Hebrew.
Shva
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Modern pronunciation does not follow traditional use of the niqqud (diacritic) "shva". In Modern Hebrew, words written with a shva may be pronounced with either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or without any vowel, and this does not correspond well to how the word was pronounced historically. For example, the first shva in the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'you (fem.) crumpled' is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) though historically it was silent, whereas the shva in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('time'), which was pronounced historically, is usually silent ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Orthographic shva is generally pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in prefixes such as ve- ('and') and be- ('in'), or when following another shva in grammatical patterns, as in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('you [f. sg.] will learn'). An epenthetic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} appears when necessary to avoid violating a phonological constraint, such as between two consonants that are identical or differ only in voicing (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'I learned', not {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) (though this rule is lost in some younger speakers and quick speech) or when an impermissible initial cluster would result (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, where C stands for any consonant). Guttural consonants (א, ה, ח, ע) rarely take a shva. Instead, they can take reduced segol (חֱ), reduced patach (חֲ), or reduced kamatz (חֳ).
Stress
Stress is phonemic in Modern Hebrew. There are two frequent patterns of lexical stress, on the last syllable (Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and on the penultimate syllable (Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). Final stress has traditionally been more frequent, but in the colloquial language many words are shifting to penultimate stress. Contrary to the prescribed standard, some words exhibit stress on the antepenultimate syllable or even farther back. This often occurs in loanwords, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('politics'), and sometimes in native colloquial compounds, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('somehow').<ref>Yaakov Choueka, Rav-Milim: A comprehensive dictionary of Modern Hebrew 1997, CET</ref> Colloquial stress has often shifted from the last syllable to the penultimate, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'hat', normative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Ezekiel 38 5) or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Isaiah 59 17), colloquial (always) {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('dovecote'), normative {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, colloquial {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This shift is common in the colloquial pronunciation of many personal names, for example {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('David'), normative {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, colloquial {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Netser, Nisan, Niqqud halakha le-maase, 1976, p. 11.</ref>
Historically, stress was phonemic, but bore low functional load. While minimal pairs existed (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, 'in/with us' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, 'they built'), stress was mostly predictable, depending on syllable weight (that is, vowel length and whether a syllable ended in a consonant). Because spoken Israeli Hebrew has lost gemination (a common source of syllable-final consonants) as well as the original distinction between long and short vowels, but the position of the stress often remained where it had been, stress has become phonemic, as the following table illustrates. Phonetically, the following word pairs differ only in the location of the stress; orthographically they differ also in the written representation of vowel length of the vowels (assuming the vowels are even written):
| Usual spelling (ktiv hasar niqqud) |
Penultimate stress | Final stress | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| spelling with vowel diacritics |
pronunciation | translation | spelling with vowel diacritics |
pronunciation | translation | |
| lang}} | lang}} | main}} | boy | lang}} | main}} | will give birth (m.sg. 3rd person) |
| lang}} | lang}} | main}} | food | lang}} | main}} | eating (m.sg.) |
| lang}} | lang}} | main}} | morning | lang}} | main}} | cowboy |
Morphophonology
In fast-spoken colloquial Hebrew, when a vowel falls beyond two syllables from the main stress of a word or phrase, it may be reduced or elided. For example:Template:Sfnp
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('that is to say')
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (what's your name, lit. 'How are you called?')
When {{#invoke:IPA|main}} follows an unstressed vowel, it is sometimes elided, possibly with the surrounding vowels:Template:Sfnp
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('your father')
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('he will give / let you')
Syllables {{#invoke:IPA|main}} drop before {{#invoke:IPA|main}} except at the end of a prosodic unit:Template:Sfnp
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('usually')
but: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('he is on his way') at the end of a prosodic unit.
Sequences of dental stops reduce to a single consonant, again except at the end of a prosodic unit:
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I once studied')
but: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('that I studied')