Phono-semantic matching

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Sociolinguistics Phono-semantic matching (PSM) is the incorporation of a word into one language from another, often creating a neologism, where the word's non-native quality is hidden by replacing it with phonetically and semantically similar words or roots from the adopting language. Thus the approximate sound and meaning of the original expression in the source language are preserved, though the new expression (the PSM – the phono-semantic match) in the target language may sound native.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref>

Phono-semantic matching is distinct from calquing, which includes (semantic) translation but does not include phonetic matching (i.e., retention of the approximate sound of the borrowed word through matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existent word or morpheme in the target language).

Phono-semantic matching is also distinct from homophonic translation, which retains the sound of a word but not the meaning.<ref name=":0" />

History

The term "phono-semantic matching" was introduced by linguist and revivalist Ghil'ad Zuckermann.Template:SfnTemplate:Non-primary source needed It challenged Einar Haugen's classic typology of lexical borrowing (loanwords).Template:Sfn While Haugen categorized borrowing into either substitution or importation, camouflaged borrowing in the form of PSM is a case of "simultaneous substitution and importation." Zuckermann proposed a new classification of multisourced neologisms, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching.

Zuckermann concludes that language planners, for example members of the Academy of the Hebrew Language, employ the very same techniques used in folk etymology by laymen, as well as by religious leaders.Template:Sfn He urges lexicographers and etymologists to recognize the widespread phenomena of camouflaged borrowing and multisourced neologization and not to force one source on multi-parental lexical items.

Examples

Arabic

Zuckermann analyses the evolution of the word artichoke.<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref> Beginning in Arabic Template:Lang (Template:TransliterationTemplate:--) "the artichoke", it was adapted into Andalusian Arabic alxarshofa, then Old Spanish alcarchofa, then Italian alcarcioffo, then Northern Italian arcicioffo > arciciocco > articiocco, then phonetically realised in English as artichoke. The word was eventually phono-semantically matched back into colloquial Levantine Arabic (for example in Syria and Lebanon) as Template:Lang (Template:TransliterationTemplate:--), consisting of Template:Lang (Template:TransliterationTemplate:--) "earthly" and Template:Lang (Template:TransliterationTemplate:--) "thorny".

Arabic has made use of phono-semantic matching to replace blatantly imported new terminology with a word derived from an existing triliteral root. Examples are:

Word English meaning Unarabicised import Arabicised word Pre-existing root (meaning)
technologie (French) technology Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) t-q-n (skill)
mitochondrie (French) mitochondria Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) q-d-r (power)
macchina (Italian) machine Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) m-k-n (capacity)

Dutch

A number of PSMs exist in Dutch as well. One notable example is Template:Lang ("hammock"), which is a modification of Spanish Template:Lang, also the source of the English word. Natively, the word is transparently analysed as a "hang-mat", which aptly describes the object. Similarly:

English

A few PSMs exist in English. The French word Template:Wikt-lang ("Carthusian monastery") was translated to the English charterhouse. The French word Template:Wikt-lang, itself an adaptation of the Choctaw name for the bowfin, has likewise been Anglicized as Template:Wikt-lang,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> although it is unrelated to the pikes. The French name for the Osage orange, Template:Lang (Template:Abbr "bow-wood"), is sometimes rendered as "bowdark".Template:Sfn Template:Dubious span

The second part of the word muskrat was altered to match rat, replacing the original form Template:Linktext, which derives from an Algonquian (possibly Powhatan<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Better source needed) word, muscascus (literally "it is red"), or from the Abenaki native word mòskwas.

The use of runagates in Psalm 68 of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer derives from phono-semantic matching between Latin Template:Lang and English Template:Wikt-lang Template:Wikt-lang.Template:Citation needed

Finnish

The Finnish compound word for "jealous," Template:Lang, literally means "black-socked" (Template:Lang "black" and Template:Lang "sock"). However, the word is a case of a misunderstood loan translation from Swedish Template:Lang "black-sick". The Finnish word Template:Lang fit with a close phonological equivalent to the Swedish Template:Lang. Similar cases are Template:Lang "hardworking person", literally "work mole", from Template:Lang "work ant", matching Template:Lang "ant" to Template:Lang "mole"; and Template:Lang "clavus", literally "extra toe", from Template:Lang < Template:Lang "dead thorn", matching Template:Lang "extra" to Template:Lang "dead (archaic)" and Template:Lang "toe" to Template:Lang < Template:Lang "thorn".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>torn, in Svenska Akademiens Ordbok (1940). https://www.saob.se/artikel/?seek=liktorn&pz=1</ref>

German

Template:Harvtxt "applies the concepts of multisourced neologisation and, more generally, camouflaged borrowing, as established by Template:Harvtxt to Modern German, pursuing a twofold aim, namely to underline the significance of multisourced neologisation for language contact theory and secondly to demonstrate that together with other forms of camouflaged borrowing it remains an important borrowing mechanism in contemporary German."Template:Sfn

Icelandic

Template:Harvtxt demonstrate how Icelandic camouflages many English words by means of phono-semantic matching. For example, the Icelandic-looking word eyðni, meaning "AIDS", is a PSM of the English acronym AIDS, using the pre-existent Icelandic verb eyða, meaning "to destroy", and the Icelandic nominal suffix -ni.<ref>Template:Harvtxt: see also Template:Lang Template:Lang (lit. "a disease caused by (making) love"), another PSM of AIDS, in this case in Standard Chinese.</ref> Similarly, the Icelandic word tækni, meaning "technology, technique", derives from tæki, meaning "tool", combined with the nominal suffix -ni, but is, in fact, a PSM of the Danish teknik (or of another derivative of Greek Template:Lang Template:Transliteration), meaning "technology, technique". Tækni was coined in 1912 by Dr Björn Bjarnarson from Viðfjörður in the East of Iceland. It had been in little use until the 1940s, but has since become common, as a lexeme and as an element in new formations, such as raftækni, lit. "electrical technics", i.e. "electronics", tæknilegur "technical" and tæknir "technician".<ref>Template:Harvtxt, cf. Template:Lang taqni/tiqani (lit. "of perfection, related to mastering and improving"), another PSM of technical, in this case in Modern Arabic.</ref> Other PSMs discussed in the article are beygla, bifraTemplate:Snd bifrari, brokkál, dapurTemplate:Snd dapurleiki - depurð, fjárfesta - fjárfesting, heila, guðspjall, ímynd, júgurð, korréttur, Létt og laggott, musl, pallborðTemplate:Snd pallborðsumræður, páfagaukur, ratsjá, setur, staða, staðallTemplate:Snd staðlaTemplate:Snd stöðlun, togaTemplate:Snd togari, uppi and veira.Template:Sfn

Japanese

Template:Main

In modern Japanese, loanwords are generally represented phonetically via katakana. However, in earlier times loanwords were often represented by kanji (Chinese characters), a process called Template:Transliteration when used for phonetic matching, or Template:Transliteration when used for semantic matching. Some of these continue to be used; the characters chosen may correspond to the sound, the meaning, or both.

In most cases the characters used were chosen only for their matching sound or only for their matching meaning. For example, in the word Template:Lang (sushi), the two characters are respectively read as Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration, but the character Template:Lang means "one's natural life span" and Template:Lang means "to administer", neither of which has anything to do with the foodTemplate:Snd this is Template:Transliteration. Conversely, in the word Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) for "tobacco", the individual kanji respectively mean "smoke" and "herb", which corresponds to the meaning, while none of their possible readings have a phonetic relationship to the word Template:TransliterationTemplate:Snd this is Template:Transliteration.

In some cases, however, the kanji were chosen for both their semantic and phonetic values, a form of phono-semantic matching. A stock example is Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) for "club", where the characters can be interpreted loosely in sequence as "together-fun-place" (which has since been borrowed into Chinese during the early 20th century with the same meaning, including the individual characters, but with a pronunciation that differs considerably from the original English and the Japanese, Template:Transliteration). Another example is Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) for the Portuguese Template:Lang, a kind of raincoat. The characters can mean "wings coming together", as the pointed Template:Lang resembles a bird with wings folded together.

Mandarin Chinese

PSM is frequently used in Mandarin borrowings.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn An example is the Taiwanese Mandarin word Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, which literally means "powerful and hard" and refers to Viagra, the drug for treating erectile dysfunction in men, manufactured by Pfizer.Template:Sfn

Another example is the Mandarin form of World Wide Web, which is Template:Transliteration (Template:Zh), which satisfies "www" and literally means "myriad dimensional net".<ref>See CEDICT or the MDBG Chinese-English Dictionary.</ref> The English word hacker has been borrowed into Mandarin as Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration, "dark/wicked visitor").Template:Sfn

Modern Standard Chinese Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration "sonar" uses the characters Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration "sound" and Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration "receive, accept". The pronunciations Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration are phonetically somewhat similar to the two syllables of the English word. Chinese has a large number of homo/heterotonal homophonous morphemes, which would have been a better phonetic fit than Template:Transliteration, but not nearly as good semanticallyTemplate:Snd consider the syllable Template:Lang (cf. Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'deliver, carry, give (as a present)', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'pine; loose, slack', Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'tower; alarm, attract' etc.), Template:Lang (cf. Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'search', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'old man', Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'sour, spoiled' and many others) or Template:Lang (cf. Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'receive, accept', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'receive, accept', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'hand', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'head', Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'beast', Template:Lang Template:Transliteration 'thin' and so forth).Template:Sfn

According to Zuckermann, PSM in Mandarin is common in:

From a monolingual Chinese view, Mandarin PSM is the 'lesser evil' compared with Latin script (in digraphic writing) or code-switching (in speech). Zuckermann's exploration of PSM in Standard Chinese and Meiji-period Japanese concludes that the Chinese writing system is multifunctional: pleremic ("full" of meaning, e.g., logographic), cenemic ("empty" of meaning, e.g., phonographic - like a syllabary), and phono-logographic (simultaneously cenemic and pleremic). Zuckermann argues that Leonard Bloomfield's assertion that "a language is the same no matter what system of writing may be used"Template:Sfn is inaccurate. "If Chinese had been written using roman letters, thousands of Chinese words would not have been coined, or would have been coined with completely different forms".Template:Sfn Evidence of this can be seen in the Dungan language, a Chinese language that is closely related to Mandarin, but written phonetically in Cyrillic, where words are directly borrowed, often from Russian, without PSM.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A related practice is the translation of Western names into Chinese characters.

Modern Hebrew

Often in phono-semantic matching, the source language determines both the root word and the noun-pattern. This makes it difficult to determine the source language's influence on the target language morphology. For example, "the phono-semantic matcher of English dock with Israeli Hebrew Template:Script/Hebrew mivdók could have usedTemplate:Sndafter deliberately choosing the phonetically and semantically suitable root Template:Transliteration Template:Script/Hebrew meaning 'check' (Rabbinic) or 'repair' (Biblical)Template:Snd the noun-patterns mi⌂⌂a⌂á, ma⌂⌂e⌂á, mi⌂⌂é⌂et, mi⌂⌂a⌂áim etc. (each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted). Instead, mi⌂⌂ó⌂, which was not highly productive, was chosen because its [o] makes the final syllable of Template:Script/Hebrew mivdók sound like English dock."Template:Sfn

Miscellaneous

Old High German widarlōn ("repayment of a loan") was rendered as widerdonum ("reward") in Medieval Latin. The last part corresponds to the Latin donum ("gift").<ref>Template:Cite OED1</ref><ref name="Smythe Palmer">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Viagra, a brand name which was suggested by Interbrand Wood (the consultancy firm hired by Pfizer), is itself a multisourced neologism, based on Sanskrit Template:Lang Template:IAST ("tiger") but enhanced by the words vigour (i.e. strength) and Niagara (i.e. free/forceful flow).Template:Sfn

Other than through Sinoxenic borrowings, Vietnamese employs phono-semantic matching less commonly than Chinese. Examples include Template:Lang ("matrix", from the words for "magic" and "battle array"), Template:Lang ("apply", from the words for "press down" and "use"), and Template:Lang (Huey P. Long, from "yellow flying dragon", evoking the Huey P. Long Bridge).

Motivations

According to Zuckermann, PSM has various advantages from the point of view of a puristic language planner:Template:Sfn

  • recycling obsolete lexical items
  • camouflaging foreign influence (for the native speaker in the future)
  • facilitating initial learning (mnemonics) (for the contemporary learner/speaker)

Other motivations for PSM include the following:

Expressive loan

An expressive loan is a loanword incorporated into the expressive system of the borrowing language, making it resemble native words or onomatopoeia. Expressive loanwords are hard to identify, and by definition, they follow the common phonetic sound change patterns poorly.Template:Sfn Likewise, there is a continuum between "pure" loanwords and "expressive" loanwords. The difference to a folk etymology (or an eggcorn) is that a folk etymology is based on misunderstanding, whereas an expressive loan is changed on purpose, the speaker taking the loanword knowing full well that the descriptive quality is different from the original sound and meaning.

South-eastern Finnish, for example, has many expressive loans. The main source language, Russian, does not use the vowels 'y', 'ä' or 'ö' [y æ ø]. Thus, it is common to add these to redescriptivized loans to remove the degree of foreignness that the loanword would otherwise have. For example, tytinä "brawn" means "wobblyness",Template:Clarify and superficially it looks like a native construction, originating from the verb tutista "to wobble" added with a front vowel sound in the vowel harmony. However, it is expressivized from tyyteni (which is a confusing word as -ni is a possessive suffix), which in turn is a loanword from Russian stúden'.Template:Sfn A somewhat more obvious example is tökötti "sticky, tarry goo", which could be mistaken as a derivation from the onomatopoetic word tök (cf. the verb tökkiä "to poke"). However, it is an expressive loan of Russian d'ogot' "tar".Template:Sfn

See also

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References

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Citations

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he:גלעד צוקרמן#"תשמו"ץ"

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