Tapas (Indian religions)

Tapasya - Jain meditation in progress.<ref name=cort2002p719>Cort, J. E. (2002). Singing the glory of asceticism: devotion of asceticism in Jainism. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70(4), pages 719-742</ref>

Tapas (Sanskrit: तपस्, romanized: tapas) is a variety of austere spiritual meditation practices in Indian religions. In Jainism, it means asceticism (austerities, body mortification);<ref name=cort2002p719/><ref name=gombrich2006p44>Template:Cite book</ref> in Buddhism, it denotes spiritual practices including meditation and self-discipline;<ref name=rg46/> and in the different traditions within Hinduism it means a spectrum of practices ranging from asceticism, 'inner cleansing' to self-discipline by meditation practices.<ref>Lowitz, L., & Datta, R. (2004). Sacred Sanskrit Words: For Yoga, Chant, and Meditation. Stone Bridge Press, Inc.; see Tapas or tapasya in Sanskrit means, the conditioning of the body through the proper kinds and amounts of diet, rest, bodily training, meditation, etc., to bring it to the greatest possible state of creative power. It involves practicing the art of controlling materialistic desires to attain moksha.Yoga, Meditation on Om, Tapas, and Turiya in the principal Upanishads Template:Webarchive, Chicago</ref><ref>Sanskrit-English phrases, France; tapas, tapa and tap on page 28</ref><ref name=brsmith144/> The Tapas practice often involves solitude and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means to moksha (liberation, salvation).<ref name=gombrich2006p44/>

In the Vedas literature of Hinduism, fusion words based on tapas are widely used to expound several spiritual concepts that develop through heat or inner energy, such as meditation, any process to reach special observations and insights, the spiritual ecstasy of a yogin or Tāpasa (a vṛddhi derivative meaning "a practitioner of austerities, an ascetic"), even warmth of sexual intimacy.<ref name=Kaelber>Kaelber, W. O. (1976). "Tapas", Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, 15(4), 343-386</ref> In certain contexts, the term means penance, pious activity, as well as severe meditation.<ref>Monier William's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 2nd Ed. 1899, Tapas</ref>

Etymology and meaning

Template:See also Tapas is based on the root Tap (तप्) meaning "to heat, to give out warmth, to shine, to burn".<ref name="Williams1872p363">Template:Cite book</ref> The term evolved to also mean "to suffer, to mortify the body, undergo penance" in order to "burn away past karma" and liberate oneself.<ref name="Williams1872p363"/><ref name="Qvarnström2003p206"/> The term Tapas means "warmth, heat, fire".<ref name="Williams1872p363"/>

The meaning of the word evolves in ancient Indian literature. The earliest discussions of tapas, and compound words from the root tap relate to the heat necessary for biological birth.<ref name=wok344345>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, page 344-345</ref><ref>M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), page 410</ref> Its conceptual origin is traced to the natural wait, motherly warmth and physical "brooding" provided by birds such as a hen upon her eggs - a process that is essential to hatching and birth. The Vedic scholars used mother nature's example to explain and extend this concept to the hatching of knowledge and spiritual rebirth.<ref>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, pages 343, 358</ref>

Some of the earliest reference of tapas, and compound words from the root tap is found in many ancient Hindu scriptures, including the Ŗig Veda (10.154.5), Shatapatha Brahmana (5.3 - 5.17), and Atharva Veda (4.34.1, 6.61.1, 11.1.26). In these texts, tapas is described as the process that led to the spiritual birth of ṛṣis - sages of spiritual insights.<ref name=wok344345/> The Atharva Veda suggests all the gods were tapas-born (tapojās), and all earthly life was created from the sun's tapas (tapasah sambabhũvur).<ref name=wok344345/><ref>Atharva Veda, 8.1.10</ref> In the Jāiminiya-Upanisad Brāhmaņa, life perpetuates itself and creates progeny by tapas, a process that starts with sexual heat.<ref name=hobt>H. Oldenberg, Die Weltanschauung der Brahmana-Texts, Gottingen: Bandenhöck und Ruprecht, 1919</ref><ref>H. Oertel, "The Jaiminiya-Upanisad Brahmana," Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 16 (1896)</ref>

Sanskrit tapasyā (neuter gender), literally "produced by heat", refers to a personal endeavor of discipline, undertaken to achieve a goal. One who undertakes tapas is a Tapasvin. The fire deity in Hinduism, Agni, is central to many Hindu rituals such as yajna and homa. Agni is considered an agent of heat, of sexual energy, of incubation; Agni is considered a great tapasvin.<ref name="Walter O. Kaelber 1976 pages 349-350"/><ref>A. B. Keith (1914), The Veda of the Black Yajus School Entitled Taittiriya Saihitd, 2 vols., Harvard University Press; Also: H. Oldenberg (1964), The Grihya Sutras, Sacred Books of the East, 2 vols., Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; see 1.7.25.1, 7.1.1.28</ref>

The word tapasvi refers to a male ascetic or meditator, while tapasvinī to a female.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Buddhism

Template:See also Before he reached his enlightenment, the Buddha tried asceticism (self-mortification) of the type found in other Śramaṇa religions (Jainism), and this is referred to as Tapas (Tibetan: dka' thub, Chinese: kuxing, Japanese: kugyo, Korean: kohaeng).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, Template:ISBN, page 204</ref> Post-enlightenment, the Buddhist doctrines of the Middle Way and Noble Eightfold Path did not include ascetic practices.<ref name="Nakamura1980p73"/>

The Buddha, in multiple Buddhist texts, such as Majjhima Nikaya and Devadaha Sutta, attributes the ascetic self-mortification style Tapas practices to Jainism (Niganthas), wherein such practices annihilate past Karmas and stop new Karmas from being created, ones that lead to the cycle of rebirths in Saṃsāra.<ref name="Qvarnström2003p206"/> These ancient Buddhist texts are significant in their claims of the existence of Jain Brahmins and ascetics, along with their karma doctrine and reasons for their Tapas practices in ancient times:<ref name= Balcerowicz149/>

These ascetic Tapas practices is also confirmed by Jainism texts such as Uttarajjhyayana.<ref name="Qvarnström2003p206">Template:Cite book</ref> The Buddhist scholar Dharmakirti strongly criticizes the Jaina practice of Tapas as a means of liberation, while many Jainism scholars have in turn strongly criticized Dharmakirti opinion and analysis, explaining why their approach to ascetic Tapas is appropriate.<ref name="Qvarnström2003p206"/>

According to Hajime Nakamura and other scholars, some scriptures of early Buddhism suggest that ascetic Tapas was a part of Buddhist practice in its early days, wherein body-mortification was an option for the Buddhist monk in his spiritual practice.<ref name="Nakamura1980p73"/><ref name="LiuAllinson1988p99">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Refn

In the Theravada tradition of Thailand, a monastic practice emerged in the 12th-century who did Tapas as ascetic wandering and forest or crematory dwelling monks, with austere practices, and these came to be known as Thudong.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These ascetic Buddhist monks are also found in Myanmar, and as in Thailand, they are known to pursue their own version of Buddhism, resisting the hierarchical institutionalized sangha structure of monasteries in Buddhism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Textual evidence suggests that asceticTapas practices were a part of the Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka by the 3rd century BCE, and this tradition continued through the medieval era in parallel to sangha style monastic tradition.<ref name="Johnston2000p90">Template:Cite book</ref>

In the Mahayana tradition, asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism.<ref name="Johnston2000p90"/> These Japanese practices included penance, austerities, ablutions under a waterfall, and rituals to purify oneself.<ref name="Johnston2000p90"/> Japanese records from the 12th century record stories of monks undertaking severe asceticism, while records suggest that 19th century Nichiren Buddhist monks woke up at midnight or 2:00 AM daily, and performed ascetic water purification rituals as a part of Tapas.<ref name="Johnston2000p90"/> Other practices include the extreme ascetic practices of eating only pine needles, resins, seeds and ultimately self-mummification, while alive, or Sokushinbutsu (miira) in Japan.<ref>Ichiro Hori (1962), Self-Mummified Buddhas in Japan. An Aspect of the Shugen-Dô ("Mountain Asceticism") Sect, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 222-242</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Elsewhere, in mainstream Buddhism, over time the meaning of the word Tapas evolved, wherein ascetic penance was forsaken, and Tapas meant meditative and spiritual practices.<ref name="Nakamura1980p73">Template:Cite book</ref>

The word Tapas appears extensively in Buddhist literature where, states Richard Gombrich, it does not mean "asceticism or mortification".<ref name=rg46/> The term Tapas means "meditation" or "reasoned moral self discipline" or both in Buddhism.<ref name=rg46>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Bailey and Mabbett, these Buddhist ideas are similar to those found in the Brahmanical (Vedic) tradition, wherein there is a great deal of overlap in the concepts of Tapas, Yoga, meditation and gnosis (knowledge), yet the term Tapas is rooted in the inner "mystic heat" themes of the Indian religions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Hinduism

History

The earliest mention of Tapas is in the Vedic texts.<ref name=wok344345/> The concept of Tapas as symbolism for spiritual rebirth begins in the Vedas.<ref>M. Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation, Harper and Row, New York, pages 53-57</ref><ref>H. Lommel (1955), Wiedergeburt aus Embryonalem Zustand in der Symbolic des Altindische Rituals, in Tod, Auferstehung, Weltordnung, ed. C. Hentze; Origo, Zurich, Switzerland</ref> Atharva Veda verse 11.5.3 compares the process of spiritual rebirth of a student in care of his or her teacher, with the gestation process during the biological birth of a baby in a mother's womb.<ref>M. Bloomfield (1964), Hymns of the Atharva Veda, Sacred Books of the East, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi</ref><ref>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, pages 355-356</ref>

Tapas is also found in the Upanishads. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, for example, suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice while those who engage in tapas and self-examination will succeed.<ref name=dct/> The Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad states that realization of self requires a search for truth and Tapas (meditation).<ref name=dct/><ref name=crp>CR Prasad, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, Template:ISBN, see Article on Brahman, pp 724-729</ref> The Mundaka Upaniṣad also emphasizes the importance of Tapas as a means to attain spiritual knowledge and realization:

Meditation and achievement of lucid knowledge is declared essential to self-realization in ancient scriptures. Texts by Adi Sankara suggests Tapas is important, but not sufficient for spiritual practice. Later Hindu scholars introduce a discussion of ‘false ascetic’, as one who go through the mechanics of tapas, without meditating on the nature of Brahman.<ref name=dct/> Tapas is an element of spiritual path, state Indian texts.<ref name=dct>David Carpenter, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, Template:ISBN, see Article on Tapas, pp 865-869</ref><ref name=crp/> The concept is extensively mentioned in the Vedas,<ref>A Vedic concordance, Maurice Bloomfield, Harvard University Press, pp. 402-404</ref> and the Upanishads.<ref>Upanishad Vakya Kosha - A Concordance of the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita G.A. Jacob, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 395-397</ref>

Agni, the fire deity, is common at Hindu rituals such as weddings. Agni is considered a great tapasvin, and symbolizes the heat and patience necessary to recreate and incubate life.<ref name="Walter O. Kaelber 1976 pages 349-350">Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, pages 349-350</ref>

According to Walter Kaelber,<ref name=wok344345/> and others,<ref name=hobt/><ref>M. Winternitz (1959), A History of Indian Literature, University of Calcutta</ref><ref>F. Edgerton (1944), The Bhagavad Gita, Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 39, Harvard University Press</ref> in certain translations of ancient Sanskrit documents Tapas is interpreted as austerities and asceticism; however, this is frequently inadequate because it fails to reflect the context implied, which is of sexual heat or warmth that incubates the birth of life. The idea of linking austerity, exertion, fatigue and self-renunciation to the ancient idea of heat, brooding and inner devotion, comes from the observed labor every mother puts in caring for its embryo and delivering her baby, regardless of the life form.<ref name="Olson2007p71">Template:Cite book</ref> The concept and reference to 'egg hatching' is replaced in Sanskrit texts written in later centuries, with simply 'brooding' or 'incubation'.<ref>P. Deussen (1966), The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Dover Publications, New York, pages 62-71</ref><ref>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, pages 347</ref>

In ancient literature of Hinduism dedicated to love, desire, lust, seduction and sex, the root of the word Tapas is commonly used. For example, in Atharva Veda, a mantra recommended for a woman who wishes to win or compel a man's love is, 'Love's consuming longing, this passion this yearning, which the gods have poured, into the waters of life, I kindle for thee (tam te tapāmi), by the law of Varuna.'<ref>C. Blair (1961), Heat in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda, American Oriental Society Publication, no. 45, Harvard University Press, pages 101-103</ref> Desire (kāma) is homologized with the concept of Tapas, to explain the feelings and inner energy that leads to sexual intercourse.<ref>W. D. Whitney (1950), Atharva Veda Samhita, 2 vols., Harvard University Press</ref><ref>A. L. Basham (1959), The Wonder That Was India, Grove Press, New York; pages 247-251</ref> Agnicayana, Satapatha Brahmana and other ancient texts similarly use the root of the word Tapas to symbolize emotions, biological stages and a mother's effort from conception to the birth of a baby.<ref>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, pages 346-349</ref>

Both meanings of Tapas are found in various Hindu texts. In some ancient texts, Tapas has the sense of ascetic mortification in a sense similar to other Indian religions,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> while in the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga school of Hinduism, the term means self-training and virtuous living in a sense similar to Buddhism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the Puranas and the texts of the goddess tradition of Hinduism, the term is equivalent to a devotion with intense self-discipline, believed to yield special inner powers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In contemporary usage, any practice that includes hardship and requires perseverance – such as fasting during Vrata – is called Tapas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Yoga and brahmacharya

Patañjali, in his Yoga Sūtra, lists Tāpas as one of the Niyamas (virtuous practices),<ref name=hsencyclo>Helaine Selin (Editor), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Template:ISBN, see Yoga article</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and describes it in several sections such as 2.32, 2.43 and 4.1.<ref name=brsmith144/> The term includes self-discipline, meditation, simple and austere living or any means of inner self-purification.<ref name="Olson2007p71"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tapas in the Patanjali text and other Hindu texts on Yoga, states Benjamin Smith, is that which is "a means for perfection of the body and the organs through the lessening of impurities" and a foundation for a yogi's pursuit of perfection.<ref name=brsmith144>Template:Cite book</ref> Yama, niyama, asana and pranayama from Ashtanga yoga comes under tapas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Tapas in the Hindu traditions is part of a stage of life, called brahmacharya.<ref name=wok357360>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, page 357-360</ref> The Vedic literature suggests diksa (incubation of a student in a field of knowledge) requires tapas, and tapas is enabled by the state of brahmacharya. This state sometimes includes tapas such as vrata (fasting, sacrifice of food), sram (philanthropic social work, sacrifice of income), silence (sacrifice of speech), and asceticism (bare minimum living, sacrifice of comfort).<ref name=wok357360/> Oldenberg notes that Brahmana scripture suggests that the Brahmachari should carry tapas to the very tip of his existence, which includes not cutting his hair, nail and beard.<ref>H. Oldenberg (1894), Religion des Veda, Hertz, Berlin, page 427-428</ref> Thus, during this process of spiritual rebirth and diksa, the tapas observed by a Brahmachari may include silence, fasting, seclusion, chastity, as well other activities. The goal of tapas is to help focus the Brahmachari on meditation, observation of reality, reflection and spiritual rebirth.<ref name=wok357360/> Brahmacharya and tapasya are interrelated, with the student life expected to be simple and austere, dedicated to the learning.<ref>J. Gonda (1965), Change and Continuity in Indian Religion, Mouton & Co., The Hague, Netherlands</ref><ref>Walter O. Kaelber (May, 1976), Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 4, page 362</ref>

Jainism

Tapas is a central concept in Jainism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It refers to the spiritual practice of body mortification, penance, and austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, thereby reaching siddha (liberating oneself).<ref name="Qvarnström2003p206"/> Ascetic Tapas among Jaina monks, both internal and external, is believed to be essential for spiritual growth and kevalya (moksha, liberation).<ref name=peterflugel/><ref name=fujinaga209>Template:Cite book</ref> The details of the Tapas practices vary between the different traditions within Jainism.<ref name=peterflugel/>

The Jain text Sarvarthasiddhi, a commentary by Pujyapada, claims that the Hindu Samkhya school emphasizes "knowledge only, no practices", while the Vaisheshikas emphasize "practices only, no knowledge" as part of Tapas and the means of reaching moksha.<ref name=fujinaga209/> Another Jain text Tattvartha Sutra, by Umaswati, in chapter 9, asserts that Tapas includes several kinds of meditation.<ref name=fujinaga209/><ref name="Johnson1995p196"/>

The Tapas in Jainism include internal practices and external austerities.<ref name=fohr2015p48/><ref name=peterflugel182>Template:Cite book</ref> External Tapas include fasting, tolerating hardships inflicted by other people or animals, tolerating all discomfort from weather by nakedness or near nakedness and the lack of any possessions, lack of shelter, walking and wandering alone without fearing anything and without hurting anyone.<ref name=fohr2015p48/> The internal Tapas include words and inner thoughts (intent) that resonate with the external Tapas (action).<ref name=fohr2015p48>Template:Cite book</ref> The list of internal and external austerities in Jainism vary with the text and tradition, with Tattvartha Sutra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra and Bhagavati Sutra stating:<ref name=peterflugel182/><ref name="Johnson1995p196">Template:Cite book</ref>

• Bahya Tapas (external austerities): fasting, abstinences, restraint in begging alms, renunciation of delicacies, self-mortification, retreat from the world.
• Abhyantara Tapas (internal austerities): penance, respect to elders, service to others, study, meditation, abandonment of the body in one's thoughts.

In Jainism, Tapas implies a control on desires,Template:Sfn and is a form a self purification.<ref name=peterflugel>Template:Cite book</ref> Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara undertook ascetic Tapas for twelve years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (liberating supreme knowledge).Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ajivikas

Ajivikas was another ancient Indian religion which survived through about 13th-century CE, but became extinct thereafter, in which Tapas was a central concept as a means of salvation.Template:Sfn According to Arthur Basham, the Ajivikas believed in the most rigorous ascetic practices in public.Template:Sfn They believed in not harming anything and not being a cause of hurt to any living creature or substance, so they ate refuse, waste products, went deep into forests, mountains or isolated caves to live their austere life.Template:Sfn

One of the Buddhist canonical texts, Nanguttha Jataka, claims that the Ajivikas perform severe ascetic practices as part of their Tapas, including sleeping on a bed of thorns and other forms of self-mortification.Template:Sfn The Jainism text Sthananga Sutra claims that the Ajivikas performed severe penances and self-mortification as part of their Tapas practice.Template:Sfn A mention of the ascetic practices of Ajivikas is found in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, where they are spelled as Ashibikas.Template:Sfn

Ajivikas were a Śramaṇa religion, just like Buddhism and Jainism, and these competed with each other.Template:Sfn Most of the Ajivika texts have not survived. The Tapas practices of Ajivikas, as well as other information about them is primarily from the Buddhist and Jain texts; scholars question whether the description of Ajivikas has been fairly and completely summarized in these, or are these polemic misrepresentations.Template:Sfn<ref name=dundas28>Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains (The Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 28-30</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Modern practice

Modern practitioners pursue Tapas - meditation and study of religion in ashrams across India.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

• Anussati
• Ataptatanu
• Dependent Origination
• Enlightenment in Buddhism
• Nirvana, Brahmacharya, Moksha
• Patikulamanasikara
• Satyagraha, Gandhism
• Soma
• Tapas (Jain religion)

Sources

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Citation

External links

• Tapas, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda Walter O. Kaelber, History of Religions, 1976, The University of Chicago Press
• Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism, Walter O. Kaelber, Numen, 1979, BRILL
• Tapas in Rigveda, Anthony Murdock, 1983, McMaster University
• Yoga, Meditation on Om, Tapas and Turiya in the Principal Upanishads, Ira Israel and Barbara Holdrege, 1999, UCSB