Qara Qoyunlu

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| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | module | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:Confederate sultanate|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:Confederate sultanate|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }} The Qara Qoyunlu or Kara Koyunlu (Template:Langx, Template:Lang; Template:Langx), also known as the Black Sheep Turkomans, were a culturally Persianate, Muslim Turkoman<ref>Template:Cite book "In a state of demographic stagnation or downturn, the region was an easy prey for nomadic Turkmen. The Turkmen, however, never managed to build strong states, owing to a lack of sedentary populations (Martinez-Gros 2009: 643). When Tamerlane died in 1405, the Jalāyerid sultan Ahmad, who had fled Iraq, came back to Baghdad. Five years later, he died in Tabriz (1410) in a battle led against the Turkmen Kara Koyunlu ("[Those of the] Black Sheep"), who took Baghdad in 1412."</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite web "Kara Koyunlu, also spelled Qara Qoyunlu, Turkish Karakoyunlular, English Black Sheep, Turkmen tribal federation that ruled Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Iraq from about 1375 to 1468."</ref><ref name=":6">Template:Cite book "Better known as Turkomans... the interim Ak-Koyunlu and Karakoyunlu dynasties..."</ref> monarchy that ruled over the territory comprising present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, northwestern Iran, eastern Turkey, and northeastern Iraq from about 1374 to 1468.Template:Sfn<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref>

History

Etymology

The name Qara Qoyunlu literally means "[those with] black sheep".Template:Sfn It has been suggested that this name refers to old totemic symbols, but according to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, the Turks were forbidden to eat the flesh of their totem-animals, and so this is unlikely given the importance of mutton in the diet of pastoral nomads. Another hypothesis is that the name refers to the predominant color of their flocks.Template:Sfn

Origins

The ruling family descended from the Yıwa tribe of the Oghuz Turks, specifically the Baharlu,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> who by the fourteenth century possessed territories north of Lake Van and Mosul in Upper Mesopotamia.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref> The tribes that comprised the Qara Qoyunlu besides the Baharlu were the Saadlu in what is now Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, the Karamanlu in Ganja and Barda, the Alpaut and the Agacheri in Maraş, the Dukharlu in Erzurum and Bayburt, the Jagirlu in Ardabil, and the Hajilu.<ref>"KARÁ-KOYUNLU. Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. [1]https://archive.org/details/ei2-complete/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam_vol_4_Iran-Kha/page/583/mode/2up"</ref><ref name=":7">Miklukho-Maklay, N. D. Shiism and its social face in Iran at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries "These tribes, which later became known as the Qizilbash tribes... created the states of Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu, which in the 15th century successively ruled Azerbaijan and most of Iran."</ref>Template:Page needed According to Faruk Sümer, the Qara Qoyunlu were undoubtedly a sub-tribe (oba "camp, tribe") of the Oghuz, and Vladimir Minorsky's claim that this subtribe belonged to the Yiwa is probably true.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Duharlu Turkmens, a branch of the Qara Qoyunlu, first appeared in the Chronicle of Michael Panaretos of the rump state of the Empire of Trebizond. It is probable that the Duharlu came to Anatolia from Central Asia during the Mongol conquest of Anatolia, as testified by the legendary traditions of the Qara Qoyunlu.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Rise

File:Jalayirids, Timurids and Qara Qoyunlu in 1400.png
Original territory of the Qara Qoyunlus circa 1400 (Template:Colorsample)

The Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans were initially vassals of the Jalayirid Sultanate in Baghdad and Tabriz from about 1375, and the leader of their leading tribe ruled from Mosul. The Qara Qoyunlu ruler Qara Mahammad invaded Mardin in 1384 and received the submission of its Artuqid ruler Majd al-Din Isa Al-Zahir (1376-1407), who became a vassal.<ref name="CEB195"/> The Qara Qoyunlu finally rebelled against the Jalayirids and secured their independence from the Jalayarid dynasty with the conquest of Tabriz by Qara Yusuf.

In 1400, the Timurid Empire under Timur defeated the Qara Qoyunlu, and Qara Yusuf fled to Egypt, seeking refuge with the Mamluk Sultanate. Qara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nāʾib of Damascus. Not long after, the Jalayirid sultan Ahmad Jalayir also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Timur, An-Nasir Faraj agreed to capture Qara Yusuf and Ahmad Jalayir and hand them over to him. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Ahmad Jalayir should keep Baghdad while Qara Yusuf would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted Qara Yusuf's son Pirbudag.

File:The Monastery, 1407-08 (Topkapı Palace Museum, TSMK H.2153) f.131b (ruler detail).jpg
Likely contemporary depiction of Pirbudag, son of Qara Yusuf, and first ruler of the Qara Qoyunlus as an independent Sultanate. The Monastery, 1407-08 (Topkapı Palace Museum, TSMK H.2153, f.131b).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

When Timur died in 1405, an-Nasir Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali of Damascus, Sheykh Mahmud.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":8">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Qara Yusuf, having returned from exile, forced Timur's governor of Van, Izzaddin Shir, to submit, while capturing Altamış, another viceroy set up by Timur, and sending him to Barquq. He later moved on to the territories of Azerbaijan. He defeated the Timurid Abu Bakr at the Battle of Nakhchivan on 14 October 1406 and reoccupied Tabriz. Abu Bakr and his father Miran Shah tried to recapture Azerbaijan, but on 20 April 1408, Qara Yusuf inflicted a decisive defeat on them at the Battle of Sardrud in which Miran Shah was killed. In the fall of 1409, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party to Shirvan, especially Shaki, which was fruitless.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the west, Mardin, the last stronghold of the Artuqids, was taken over by the Qara Qoyunlu in 1409.<ref name="CEB195">Template:Cite book</ref>

Armenia

In 1410, Armenia fell under the control of the Qara Qoyunlu. The principal Armenian sources available in this period come from the historian Tovma Metsopetsi and several colophons to contemporary manuscripts.<ref>Kouymjian, Dickran (1997), "Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Migration under Shah Abbas (1604)" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian, New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 4. Template:ISBN.</ref> According to Tovma, although the Qara Qoyunlu levied heavy taxes against the Armenians, the early years of their rule were relatively peaceful and some reconstruction of towns took place. This peaceful period was, however, shattered with the rise of Qara Iskander, who reportedly made Armenia a "desert" and subjected it to "devastation and plunder, to slaughter, and captivity".<ref>Kouymjian. "Armenia", p. 4.</ref> Iskander's wars with and eventual defeat by the Timurids invited further destruction in Armenia, as many Armenians were taken captive and sold into slavery and the land was subjected to outright pillaging, forcing many of them to leave the region.<ref name="Kouymjian. Armenia, p. 5">Kouymjian. "Armenia", p. 5.</ref> Iskander did attempt to reconcile with the Armenians by appointing an Armenian from a noble family, Rustum, as one of his advisers.

When the Timurids launched their final incursion into the region, they convinced Jihanshah, Iskander's brother, to turn on his brother. Jihanshah pursued a policy of persecution against the Armenians in Syunik and colophons to Armenian manuscripts record the sacking of the Tatev monastery by his forces.<ref name="Kouymjian. Armenia, p. 5"/> But he, too, sought a rapprochement with the Armenians, allotting land to feudal lords, rebuilding churches, and approving the relocation of the seat of the Armenian Apostolic Church's Catholicos to Etchmiadzin Cathedral in 1441. For all this, Jihanshah continued to attack Armenian towns and take Armenian captives as the country saw further devastation in the final years of Jihanshah's failed struggles with the Aq Qoyunlu.<ref>Kouymjian. "Armenia", pp. 6–7.</ref>

Baghdad

File:Iskandar ibn Qara Yusuf (contemporary portrait, painted circa 1430).jpg
Contemporary portrait of Qara Iskander, circa 1430

In 1410, the Qara Qoyunlu captured Baghdad. The installation of a subsidiary Qara Qoyunlu line there hastened the downfall of the Jalairids they had once served. Despite internal fighting among Qara Yusuf's descendants after his death in 1420, The Qara Qoyunlu state collapsed after Qara Yusif. After the death of Qara Yusuf in December 1420, Shah Rukh tried to take Azerbaijan from Qara Yusuf's son Iskander, using the fact that none of his sons was accompanying his father. Despite defeating Qara Iskander, twice in 1420–21 and 1429, only in the third expedition of Shahrukh Mirza in 1434–35 did the Timurids succeed, when he entrusted the government to Iskander's own brother, Jahan Shah (1436-1467) as his vassal.

File:Iskandar ibn Qara Yusuf (left) in battle against Ibrahim Sultan (right). 1430 Shahnama, Bodleian Library, ms. Add 176, folios 6r-7v.jpg
Contemporary depiction of Qara Qoyunlu ruler Qara Iskander (left) in battle against the Timurid Ibrahim Sultan (right) in April 1429. Shahnama (1430), Bodleian Library, ms. Add 176, folios 6r-7v.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1436 Jahan Shah made peace with the Timurid Shahrukh Mirza, and obtained the help of Shah Rukh to defeat Iskander and seize the throne for himself. He was also adopted by Gawhar Shad and crowned on 19 April 1438, taking the epithet Muzaffar al-Din.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Upon the death of the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh in 1447, Jahan Shah became an independent ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, and started to use the titles of sultan and khan. At the same time, the Timurid Empire took advantage of the struggles among the Turkoman princes and captured the cities of Sultaniya and Qazvin. Peace was made when Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor was married to a daughter of Jahan Shah. However, he retook lands he lost from Mirza Babur.

After the death of Shahrukh in 1447, the Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans annexed portions of Iraq and the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula as well as Timurid-controlled western Iran. As the Timurid Empire was embroiled in uncertainty and succession struggles, Jahan Shah managed to capture the cities of Sultaniya, Hamadan and Qazvin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Southern and Eastern expansion

Template:See also In 1452-1453, Jahan Shah seized the opportunity of the death of Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor, Timurid Governor of Fars, to further expand East and South, taking Saveh, Qum, Isfahan, Shiraz and Yazd. He was seconded by his son Pīr Būdāq, who became governor of the region of Shiraz.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the summer of 1458, Jahan Shah advanced as far as Herat and occupied the city for a few months, but ultimately had to turn back because of a revolt by his son Hasan Ali, and also because of Abu Said's march on Tabriz.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Hasan Ali was kept in Maku prison for a while for his rebellious nature. He was defeated in winter 1458. But this time, his son Pirbudag rebelled, who was soon joined by Hasan Ali in Fars. However, he was spared at the request of his mother and replaced by Mirza Yusuf, another son of Jahan Shah.<ref name=":1" /> Pirbudag was sent to govern Baghdad, his other sons Qasim beg was assigned to Kerman with Hasan Ali being imprisoned again. However, Pirbudag again rebelled, now controlling Baghdad. He was defeated in 1464 and was executed by Mirza Muhammad.

Decline

Though much territory was gained during his rule, Jahān Shāh's reign was troubled by his rebellious sons and the almost autonomous rulers of Baghdad, whom he expelled in 1464. In 1466, Jahan Shah attempted to take Diyarbakır from the Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans"), however, this was a catastrophic failure resulting in Jahān Shāh's death and the collapse of the Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans' control in the Middle East. Jahanshah died in the Battle of Chapakchur in 1467. The Qara Qoyunlu was almost destroyed. This time Hasanali Mirza came to power, but was killed by Uzun Hasan.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

By 1468, at their height under Uzun Hasan (1452–1478), Aq Qoyunlu defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, and western Iran.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Religion

File:Blue Mosque (Tabriz) General view.jpg
The Blue Mosque, Tabriz was started in Template:AH through a foundation established by the wife of Jahan Shah, and was completed in October 1465.<ref name="s1"/>

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Governance

File:Pir Budaq miniature.jpg
Contemporary depiction of Pir Budaq, son of Jahan Shah, as Governor of Shiraz. Shiraz miniature, Template:Circa

The Qara Qoyunlu state organization was based mainly on of its predecessors, Jalayirids, and the Ilkhanids. Qara Qoyunlu rulers used the title sultan since the enthronement of Pirbudag by Qara Yusuf. Sometimes the title bahadur appeared on the coinage. They also used the titles khan, khagan and padishah.<ref name=faruk />

Keeping with a Persianate culture,Template:Sfn the Qara Qoyunlu used the Persian language for diplomacy, poetry,Template:Sfn and as a court language.Template:Sfn Diplomatic letters to the Timurids and Ottomans were written in Persian, while the correspondence with the Mamluk sultans were in Arabic.Template:Sfn Official internal documents (farmān, suyūrghāl) were also written in Persian.Template:Sfn Jahan Shah was titled Padishah-i Iran<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and King of Kings of Iran during his reign.

As for the provincial organization, the provinces were governed by şehzade and beys, who had smaller divans in each of the provinces. The governance by military governors (beys) generally passed on from father to son. In the cities there were officials called darugha, that looked after financial and administrative affairs, and also had political powers. The şehzades and beys had their own soldiers which were called nökers, who were trained and salaried.<ref name=faruk />

In the south, Pir Budaq, son of Jahan Shah became Governor of the region of Shiraz, becoming to some extent a ruler in his own right, rebelling against his father by seeking independence. This move aroused his father's anger. Pir Budaq was later transferred to the governorship of Baghdad, thought to be easier to control than Shiraz, but he was ultimately killed upon the orders of his father.<ref>Browne, E.G., A Literary History of Persia, Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, 1969, p. 402</ref>

Culture

Under Timur, the cultural entity of Iran was renewed by Persian literature, art and culture being patronized throughout the Timurid Empire.Template:Sfn Consequently, Qara Qoyunlu art was notably influenced by the Timurids.Template:Sfn Jahan Shah wrote his poetry in Azerbaijani and Persian, while the Kitab-i Diyarbakriyya, a history of the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu, was written by Abu Bakr Tehrani in Persian.Template:Sfn

Architecture

Template:Multiple image Jahan Shah is known for several architectural contributions through western Iran. The Northern Iwan of Darb-e Imam in Isfahan is attributed to him. He commissioned and dedicated the monument in 1453, two years after conquering the city.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The gate is considered as "a masterpiece of tile decoration",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and "among the finest specimens of such work in Persia".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It has a monumental inscription in Persian recording the rule of Jahanshah and the local governorship of his son Moḥammad: “When the ruler of the greatest domain, lord of the mightiest realm, and sovereign protector of the world Abu’l-Moẓaffar Mīrzāda Jahānšāh, may God perpetuate his stewardship, entrusted the government of this province to the care and direction of the prince, the support of the pillars of the religion of Moḥammad Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammadī...”.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Photograph and content of the inscription</ref>

Jahanshah is also known for renovation work on the Eastern entrance iwan of the Jameh Mosque of Yazd in 1457. The portal has a central dedication in the name of Jahanshah: "the structure of this lofty arch (taf) was restored during the reign of . . . Abu’l-Muzaffar Sultan Jahanshah, Nizam al Dawlah wa’l-Din al-Hajj Qanbar, in Dhu’l-Hijjah 861." It is thought that the contribution was specifically related to the muqarnas of the portal.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Photograph and content of the dedication</ref>

File:Blue Mosque of Tabriz, Iran.jpg
Interior of the Blue Mosque of Tabriz

The Blue Mosque in Tabriz was started through a foundation established by the wife of Jahanshah, and was completed in 1465.<ref name="s1"/> The construction of the mausoleum itself, forming an outgrowth to the south of the mosque, continued during the reign of the Āq Qoyunlu into the 1480s.<ref name="s1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The entrance gate also has a monumental inscription in the name of Jahan Shah.<ref>Jahan Shah inscription at the Blue Mosque</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Tilework

Template:See also The celebrated tilework of the Blue Mosque consists in "unrivalled" underglaze painted tile and mosaics, using shades of cobalt blue and incized gold and white patterns, which covered both the interior and the exterior of the mosque, as well as its dome.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Qara Qoyunlu architecture is often richly decorated, but the designs of the Blue Mosque are particularly innovative, and may have been influenced by architects from the Timurid capital of Herat having moved to Tabriz following the 1458 capture of Herat.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Turkmen style of tilework appears to have been an influential precursor throughout the Middle-East.<ref name="GN"/> It is thought that the blue-and-white tiles which can be found in the architectural decorations of Mamluk Syria and Egypt, or in the Ottoman capitals of Bursa and Edirne, were created by itinerant artists coming from the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu capital of Tabriz.<ref name="GN"/> The tilework of the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem was signed by "Abdallah of Tabriz" under a commission of the Ottoman Sultan Süleyman in 1545-1552.<ref name="GN"/> The influence of this Tabrizi school was also felt in Istanbul up to the mid-16th century.<ref name="GN">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Literature

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File:Pir Budaq and his court. Frontispiece from a copy of Kalila wa Dimna of Abu’l-Ma‘ali Nasr Allah. Baghdad (possibly), c. 1465. Tehran, Gulistan Palace Library, no. 827 (vertical detail).jpg
Pir Budaq and his court. Frontispiece from a Kalila wa Dimna, Baghdad (likely), c. 1465.

Jahan Shah's constant military struggles limited his involvement in artistic pursuits, apart from monumental architectural contributions such as the Blue Mosque in Tabriz. The beautiful tilework displayed in the decorations of the Blue Mosque can be considered as a precussor of the manuscript frontispieces later made in Herat.<ref name="AT24">Template:Cite book</ref> Many of the miniatures produced during the period tended to be somewhat "provincial" in taste, using bright colors and standardized figures, known as the "Turkmen style".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

On the contrary, Jahan Shah's son Pir Budaq, who became Governor of Fars and Baghdad, was extremely active in the production of refined manuscripts.<ref name="AT24"/> The fact that Pir Budaq had accompanied his father Jahan Shah during the several-months occupation of Timurid Herat in 1458, may have given him the opportunity to get acquainted to the Timurid "art of the book" and to Timurid court artists.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Under Pir Budaq, several innovations were made in the calligrapgy of nasta'liq writing, and manuscripts were finely illustrated along Khorasan pictorial conventions.<ref name="AT24"/>

Qara Qoyunlus in India

File:Qara Iskander genealogy.png
Genealogy of the Qara Qoyunlu, and descendants of Qara Iskander, forming the Indian branch of the Qutbshahis.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="jstor1"/>

Sultan Quli Khawas Khan Hamdani (r.1518-1543), the founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty of the Sultanate of Golconda in southern India, belonged to the Qara Qoyunlu and was a fourth-generation direct descendant of Qara Iskander (r.1421-1436).<ref name="jstor1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Masud">Template:Cite book</ref> In the 16th century, he migrated from Iran to Delhi with his uncle, Allah-Quli, some of his relatives and friends. Later he migrated south, to the Deccan and served the Bahmani sultan, Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, who was of Deccani Muslim ethnicity.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Michell">George Michell, Mark Zebrowski, Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 17.</ref> He established and declared the independence of the Sultanate of Golconda after the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate into the five Deccan sultanates.<ref name="Michell"/>

In the 16th century, other Qara Qoyunlus played a prominent role in the service of the Mughals in India, such as Bairam Khan (Bahārlū clan of the Qara Qoyunlū, Commander-in-chief of the Mughal army), his son Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, or his nephew Khan Jahan I.<ref>Schimmel, A. (22 Feb. 2022). Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p.77 "Humayun had been forced to leave Hindustan after his second defeat; he first sought shelter in Sind, where the Turkish dynasty of the Arghuns had replaced the indigenous Samma in 1520. His father's faithful friend Bairam Khan, a Baharlu Turcoman, joined him there, and his son Akbar was born in Umarkot (Sind) in 1542."</ref><ref>N. H. Ansari, 1989, "Bayram Khan", Encyclopedia Iranica: "Bayram Khan belonged to the Bahārlū clan of the Qara Qoyunlū Turkmen (Nehāvandī, I, p. 11), whose descendants still live in the Dārābjerd region of Fārs province (Ṣafā, IV, p. 13). The Qara Qoyunlūs established their independent rule under Qarā Yūsof (d. 823/1420) in Azerbaijan and the adjoining areas, expanding in later years into Kermān and Fārs, but they were overthrown by the Āq Qoyunlūs led by Uzun Ḥasan in 973/1468 (Nehāvandī, I, pp. 16ff.; Ṣafā, Adabīyāt IV, pp. 13ff.). Bayram Khan was descended from ʿAlī Šokr Bīg [Ali Sher Beg], the ruler of Hamadān and Kurdistan (Nehāvandī, I, p. 46) through his father Sayf-ʿAlī Bīg, son of Bayram Bīg, son of Sultan Maḥmūd Mīrzā, a Timurid prince and governor of Badaḵšān (Nehāvandī, I, p. 61), who married the daughter of ʿAlī Šokr Bīg,[Ali Sher Beg] himself married to the daughter of Qarā Sekandar (r. 823-39/1420-35)."</ref>

See also

Template:History of Armenia Template:History of Azerbaijan Template:Anatolian History timeline infobox Template:History of Iran

Notes

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References

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Works cited

Further reading

  • Bosworth, Clifford. The New Islamic Dynasties, 1996.
  • Template:In lang Khachikyan, Levon. ԺԵ դարի հայերեն ձեռագրերի հիշատակարաններ, մաս 1 (Fifteenth Century Armenian Colophons, Part 1). Yerevan, 1955.
  • Morby, John. The Oxford Dynasties of the World, 2002.
  • Sanjian, Avedis K. Colophons of Armenian manuscripts, 1301-1480: A Source for Middle Eastern History, Selected, Translated, and Annotated by Avedis K. Sanjian. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969.
  • Shukurov, Rustam. The Byzantine Turks 1204-1461. Brill, 2016.

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