Foreign relations of Canada
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The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and nations. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.<ref name="Chapnick2011a">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Gabryś Soroka 2017 p. 39">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="c733">Template:Cite book</ref> Canada is known for its promotions of peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,<ref name="o407">Template:Cite book</ref> and for providing aid to developing countries.<ref name="p004">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="o880">Template:Cite web</ref> The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-20th century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.<ref name="s080">Template:Cite book</ref>
Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations.<ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63">Template:Cite book</ref> Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.<ref name="JohnsonJoshee2007">Template:Cite book</ref> The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN.<ref name="McQuaig2010bt">Template:Cite book</ref> Canada has faced controversy over its involvement in some foreign countries, notably the 1993 Somalia affair.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Canada and the United States have a long, complex, and intertwined relationship;<ref name="The Canadian Encyclopedia 2020 s579">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref name="Nord Weller p.">Template:Cite book</ref> they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.<ref name="Carment Sands 2019 p. 3">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,<ref name="Morrison 2008 p. 177">Template:Cite journal</ref> along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.<ref name="netherlands">Template:Cite book</ref> Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.<ref name="GAC 2014 c263"/>
Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participating in multiple international organizations.<ref name="y237">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="l761">Template:Cite web</ref> Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958.<ref name="Wilson 2012 p. 10">Template:Cite book</ref> The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).<ref name="Chapnick2011a" /> Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The country joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990, <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.<ref name="GAC 2020">Template:Cite web</ref>
History
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Administration
In 1982, responsibility for trade was added with the creation of the Department of External Affairs and International Trade. In 1995, the name was changed to Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.
Canada has often carried out its foreign policy through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions (e.g.: the Royal Canadian Mounted Police International Peace Operations Branch <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> or deployments of personnel by the Correctional Service of Canada<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref>). Under the aegis of Canadian foreign policy, various departments and agencies conduct their own international relations and outreach activities. For example, the Canadian Forces and the Department of National Defence conduct defence diplomacy in support of national interests, including through the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g., the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation,<ref>For example, through the Military Training and Cooperation Program and its ancillary activities Template:Cite web</ref> and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.
There are two major elements of Canadian foreign relations, Canada-US relations and multilateralism.
Greg Donaghy, of Canada's Department of Foreign Affairs, argues:
- Since taking power in 2006, Prime Minister Harper's government has clearly abandoned the liberal internationalism that had so often characterized Ottawa's approach to world affairs, replacing it with a new emphasis on realist notions of national interest, enhanced capabilities, and Western democratic values.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Relevance inline
Canada's international relations are the responsibility of the Department of Global Affairs, which is run by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Traditionally the Prime Minister has played a prominent role in foreign affairs decisions. Foreign aid, formerly delivered through the Canadian International Development Agency, has been administered by DFATD since March 2013.<ref name="cbc.ca">Template:Cite news</ref>
Foreign aid
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The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises. Canada promotes its domestically shared values such as health, education, food security, climate action, gender equality, economic stability, human rights, and democracy through multilateral organizations, including World Bank Group, World Food Programme, UNICEF, and the Global Fund,<ref name="g718">Template:Cite web</ref> as well as Canadian organizations like Nutrition International, Grand Challenges Canada, and Save the Children.<ref name="m791">Template:Cite web</ref>
In the 2023-2024 fiscal year, Canada spent $12 billion on foreign aid.<ref name="y473">Template:Cite web</ref> Canada is the 6th-largest overall contributor of official development assistance and the fifteenth largest when measured as a proportion of its gross national income.<ref name="g227">Template:Cite web</ref> Canada provides substantial development assistance, primarily through Official Development Assistance with the goals of reducing global poverty and sustainable development.<ref name="x923">Template:Cite web</ref> In 2024, Canada's ODA reached approximately CAD$9.6 billion (US$7.4 billion), representing 0.34% of its GNI,<ref name="r452">Template:Cite web</ref> making it a significant donor among OECD countries.<ref name="h139">Template:Cite web</ref>
A 2024 survey by Abacus Data indicated that Canadians generally support Canada's global engagement, particularly in providing international assistance.<ref name="b139">Template:Cite web</ref> A separate poll by CanWaCH found that 81% of Canadians support Canada providing Official Development Assistance funding.<ref name="m585"/> Furthermore, 77% of Canadians believe it's important for Canada to help other countries in need.<ref name="m585">Template:Cite web</ref>
Federalism and foreign relations
The provinces have a high level of freedom to operate internationally, dating to 1886 and Quebec's first representative to France, Hector Fabre. Alberta has had representatives abroad, starting with Alberta House in London (37 Hill Street), since 1948, and British Columbia around 25 years before that.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By 1984, Quebec had offices in ten countries including eight in the United States and three in other Canadian provinces while Ontario had thirteen delegations in seven countries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Canada maintains diplomatic relations with:
Bilateral relations
Africa
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Algeria is Canada's top trading partner in Africa.Template:Citation needed
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Cameroon and Canada have established diplomatic ties on 7 December 1961<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> with three agreements and four protocoles signed in 1965. Both countries share the use of English and French as the two official languages as well as memberships in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and The Commonwealth.
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Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1976.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
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Both countries established embassies in their respective capitals in 1954.
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Canada established diplomatic relations with numerous countries, including South Africa, as World War II broke out.
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Canada currently has a development assistance program in Zambia, which is focused on the health sector to provide Zambians with equal access to quality health care. Canada and Zambia are currently in the process of negotiating a Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
Americas
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
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| Template:Flag | Template:Date table sorting | See Argentina–Canada relations
Canada's first ambassador to Buenos Aires, began his assignment in 1945. In 2011 Canada's largest imports were decorative items gold, wines and Iron and steel pipes.<ref name="IECA">Template:Cite web</ref> Canada's largest exports to Argentina were Energy-related products; telephones sets, and fertilizers.<ref name="IECA"/> Bilateral trade in 2014 was $2.19 billion.<ref name="BT2014">Template:Cite web</ref> Both countries are members of the Organization of American States and the Cairns Group.
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Antigua & Barbuda and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations. Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1967.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | Template:Date table sorting | The Commonwealth of The Bahamas and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Barbados and Canada are both members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations. In 1907, the Government of Canada opened a Trade Commissioner Service to the Caribbean region located in Bridgetown, Barbados. Following Barbadian independence from the United Kingdom in November 1966, the Canadian High Commission was established in Bridgetown, Barbados in September 1973. There is a Barbadian High Commission in Ottawa and a Barbadian Consulate in Toronto. The relationship between both nations today partly falls within the larger context of Canada–Caribbean relations. |
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The nations of Belize and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Canada and Chile are both members of: the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations. Since 1997 Canada and Chile's trade relations have been governed by the Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement, Chile's first full free trade agreement and Canada's first with a Latin American nation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Canada has maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens. Canada-Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar. Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission. Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada's representative in Cuba. Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.
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Canada and the Commonwealth of Dominica are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the United Nations.
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Greenland (within the Kingdom of Denmark), and Canada are connected through indigenous culture and language, which is shared by the Inuit across Arctic Canada and also Alaska.<ref>International relations Template:Webarchive, GoG.</ref> Both nations maintain cooperation and good relations through the Arctic Council and under the auspices of the Arctic Coastal States. In addition, both act as close partners at: Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), Nordic Council, Nordic Atlantic Cooperation, and the West Nordic Foundation. Through the expansion of self-government in Greenland since 1979 both nations, but especially the administration at Nuuk have attached strategic importance to their bilateral relations with Canada in the areas of the politics, economic and trade relations and in the fields of education, science and culture.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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Canada and Grenada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Canada and the Co-Operative Republic of Guyana are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Canada and Haiti are both members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Canada and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Despite the fact that historic ties between the two nations have been coldly dormant, relations between Canada and Mexico have positively changed in recent years; seeing as both countries brokered the North American Free Trade Agreement. Although on different sides of the Cold War spectrum (Canada was a member of NATO while Mexico was in the Non-Aligned Movement, the two countries were still allies in World War II.)
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Canada and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
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Relations between Canada and the United States span more than two centuries, marked by a shared British colonial heritage, conflict during the early years of the U.S., and the eventual development of one of the most successful international relationships in the modern world. The most serious breach in the relationship was the War of 1812, which saw an American invasion of then British North America and counter invasions from British-Canadian forces. The border was demilitarized after the war and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during the World Wars and continued throughout the Cold War, despite Canadian doubts about certain American policies. A high volume of trade and migration between the U.S. and Canada has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being overwhelmed by its neighbour, which is ten times larger in population, wealth and debt.<ref>James Tagg reports that Canadian university students have a profound fear that "Canadian culture, and likely Canadian sovereignty, will be overwhelmed." Tagg, "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism," The History Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR; J. L. Granatstein. Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997).</ref> Canada and the United States are currently the world's largest trading partners, share the world's longest shared border,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and have significant interoperability within the defence sphere. |
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In February 1948 there was a Canadian consulate-general in Caracas and a Venezuelan consulate-general in Montreal. In that year the Venezuelan Consul General, on behalf of the government of Venezuela, made a rapprochement with Canada in order to open direct diplomatic representations between the two countries;<ref>Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian External RelationsTemplate:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore. Retrieved 17 December 2007.</ref> but the Canadian government delayed the opening of a diplomatic mission in Venezuela because of the lack of enough suitable personnel to staff a Canadian mission in Venezuela and the impossibility of Canada beginning a representation in Venezuela in that year without considering a policy of expansion of Canadian representation abroad.<ref>Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian External RelationsTemplate:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore. Retrieved 17 December 2007.</ref> In the interest of protecting Canadian trade with Venezuela and considering the difficulties for business in being without a Canadian representation in Caracas, Canada was pushed to accept the Venezuelan offer of exchanging diplomatic missions.<ref>Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian External RelationsTemplate:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore. Retrieved 17 December 2007.</ref> Finally Canada elevated the former office of the Canadian Consulate General in Caracas to the category of embassy in 1953.<ref>The Canadian Embassy in Venezuela Bilateral Relations Template:Webarchive. Retrieved 17 December 2007.</ref> Venezuela established an embassy in Canada in 1952.<ref>Embassy of Venezuela in Canada Template:Cite web. Retrieved 18 December 2007.</ref> Since then there have been good commercial relations between the two countries, especially in technology, oil and gas industry, telecommunications and others. In June 2019, Canada closed its embassy in Caracas due to diplomatic visas unable to be renewed under President Maduro's government.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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Asia
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
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| Template:Flag | 1960s 1968 (officially) |
See Afghanistan–Canada relations
The Canadian government announced in February 2009 that it was adding Afghanistan to its list of preferred countries to receive foreign aid.<ref name="canadaeast.com">Alexander Panetta, "Canada limits main foreign aid recipients to 20 countries", Canada East website. Retrieved 3 March 2009.</ref>
See also: War in Afghanistan, Embassy of Canada in Kabul, List of ambassadors of Canada to Afghanistan |
| Template:Flag | 1992 | See Armenia–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 1992 | See Azerbaijan–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 1972 | See Bangladesh–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 1984-05-07 | See Brunei–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 1970-10-13 | See Canada–China relations
Since 2003, China has emerged as Canada's second largest trading partner, passing Britain and Japan. China now accounts for approximately six percent of Canada's total world trade. According to a recent study by the Fraser Institute, China replaced Japan as Canada's third-largest export market in 2007, with CA$9.3 billion flowing into China in 2007. Between 1998 and 2007, exports to China grew by 272 percent, but only represented about 1.1 per cent of China's total imports. In 2007, Canadian imports of Chinese products totalled C$38.3 billion. Between 1998 and 2007, imports from China grew by almost 400 percent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Leading commodities in the trade between Canada and China include chemicals, metals, industrial and agricultural machinery and equipment, wood products, and fish products.<ref name=autogenerated1>Template:Cite web</ref> Trade tariffs and other incidents in 2019, including the arrest of top Huawei executive Meng Wanzhou<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> have frozen relations between the two countries. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang internment camps.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1992-07-23 | See Canada–Georgia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1947-08-15 | See Canada–India relations
In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan.<ref name="FICCI Economic Relations">Template:Cite web</ref> Although Jean Chrétien and Roméo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.<ref name="FICCI Economic Relations"/> In 2023, Justin Trudeau accused the Indian government of involvement in the killing of a Sikh-Canadian leader, Hardeep Singh Nijjar on Canadian soil. “Any involvement of a foreign government in the killing of a Canadian citizen on Canadian soil is an unacceptable violation of our sovereignty,” the Prime Minister stated to the House of Commons.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
| Template:Flag | 1952 | See Canada–Indonesia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1955 ended 2012 | See Canada–Iran relations
Canadian-Iranian relations date back to 1955, up to which point the Canadian Consular and Commercial Affairs in Iran was handled by the British Embassy. A Canadian diplomatic mission was constructed in Tehran in 1959 and raised to embassy status in 1961. Due to rocky relations after the Iranian Revolution, Iran did not establish an embassy in Canada until 1991 when its staff, which had been living in a building on Roosevelt Avenue in Ottawa's west end, moved into 245 Metcalfe Street in the Centretown neighbourhood of Ottawa which was upgraded to embassy status, however in 2012, Canada severed all diplomatic ties with Iran in regard to Iran's treatment of human rights and belligerent foreign policy. The CRGI is designated a terrorist organization in 2024.
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| Template:Flag | 1961-02 to 1991–12 2005–06 |
See Canada–Iraq relations, Canada and the Iraq War
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| Template:Flag | 1950 | See Canada–Israel relations
At the United Nations in 1947, Canada was one of the thirty-three countries that voted in favour of the creation of a Jewish homeland. Canada delayed granting de facto recognition to Israel until December 1948, and finally gave full de jure recognition to the new nation on 11 May 1949, only after it was admitted into the United Nations (UN). A week later, Avraham Harman became Israel's first consul general in Canada. In September 1953, the Canadian Embassy opened in Tel Aviv and Israeli Ambassador to Canada, Michael Comay, was appointed, although a non-resident Canadian Ambassador to Israel was not appointed until 1958.
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| Template:Flag | 1928-12 | See Canada–Japan relations
The two countries enjoy an amicable companionship in many areas; diplomatic relations between both countries officially began in 1950 with the opening of the Japanese consulate in Ottawa. In 1929, Canada opened its Tokyo legation, the first in Asia;<ref>Ambassade du Japon au Canada: 80ième anniversaire des relations diplomatiques nippo-canadiennes. Template:Webarchive</ref> and in that same year, Japan its Ottawa consulate to legation form.<ref name="mofa1">Foreign Ministry of Japan: Episodes in Japan-Canada Relations.</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1992 | See Canada–Kazakhstan relations
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| Template:Flag | 1992 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1954 | See Canada–Lebanon relations
Canada established diplomatic relations with Lebanon in 1954, when Canada deployed "Envoy Extraordinaire" to Beirut. In 1958, Canada sent its first ambassador. The embassy was closed in 1985 and reopened in January 1995. Lebanon opened a consulate in Ottawa in 1946. A consulate-general replaced the consulate in 1949, and it was upgraded to full embassy status in 1958.
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| Template:Flag | 1957-08-31<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> | See Canada–Malaysia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1973-11-30 | See Canada–Mongolia relations
Though Canada and Mongolia established diplomatic ties in 1973, ad hoc linkages and minor activities occurred between the two countries mainly through the Canada-Mongolia Society, which disbanded in 1980. When Mongolia formed a democratic government in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Canada began to support Mongolia with donor activities through the International Development Research Centre, Canadian International Development Agency and several non-governmental organizations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> |
| Template:Flag | 2001-02-06 to 2010-03-26 | See Canada–North Korea relations
Canada and North Korea share very little trade due to the destabilizing element North Korea has caused in the Asia Pacific region. Canada is represented by the Canadian Ambassador resident in Seoul, and North Korea is represented through its office at the UN in New York City. |
| Template:Flag | 1947-08-15 | See Canada–Pakistan relations
See also Pakistani Canadian, High Commission of Pakistan in Ottawa |
| Template:Flag | 1949 | See Canada–Philippines relations
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| Template:Flag | See Canada–Qatar relations
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| Template:Flag | 1973-05 | See Canada–Saudi Arabia relations
Saudi Arabia is Canada's second largest trade partner among the seven countries of the Arabian Peninsula,<ref name="CSAR">Template:Cite web</ref> totalling more than $2 billion in trade in 2005,<ref name="dfait">Template:Cite web</ref> nearly double its value in 2002, trade totalled $3.8 in 2014.<ref name="TradeCSA">Template:Cite web</ref> Canada chiefly imports petroleum, and oil from Saudi Arabia, while The largest exporting good are such as cereals, railway/tramway equipment; machinery equipment and paper in 2010.<ref name="CSAT2010">Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1965-12-15 | See Canada–Singapore relations
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| Template:Flag | 1963-01-14<ref name="mofa.go.kr">Template:Cite web</ref> | See Canada–South Korea relations
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| Template:Flag | 1949–1970 official 1991-quasi-official |
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| Template:Flag | 1992 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.
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| Template:Flag | 1947 | See Canada-Thailand relations
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| Template:Flag | 1943<ref name="mfa.gov.tr">Template:Cite web</ref> | See Canada–Turkey relations
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| Template:Flag | See Canada–United Arab Emirates relations | |
| Template:Flag | 1973-08-21 | See Canada–Vietnam relations
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| Template:Flag | 1975-12 (North Yemen) 1976-05 (South Yemen) 1989-09 (united Yemen) |
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Europe
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| Template:Flag | 1987-09-10 | See Albania–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 15 April 1992<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
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| Template:Flag | 1939-01 | See Belgium–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | See Bulgaria–Canada relations
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| Template:Flag | 1993-04-14 | See Canada–Croatia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1960-08-16 | See Canada–Cyprus relations
Canadian bilateral political relations with Cyprus stemmed initially from Cypriot Commonwealth membership at independence in 1960 (that had followed a guerrilla struggle with Britain). These relations quickly expanded in 1964 when Canada became a major troop contributor to UNFICYP. The participation lasted for the next 29 years, during which 50,000 Canadian soldiers served and 28 were killed. In large measure Canadian relations with Cyprus continue to revolve around support for the ongoing efforts of the UN, G8 and others to resolve the island's divided status.
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| Template:Flag | 1993 | See Canada–Czech Republic relations
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| Template:Flag | 1949-10-14 | See Canada–Denmark relations
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| Template:Flag | 1922 | See Canada–Estonia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1947-11-21 | See Canada–Finland relations
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| Template:Flag | 1882 | See Canada–France relations
Canada and the Republic of France are members of: the Canada-France Inter-Parliamentary Association, the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), the G8, the G20, NATO, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the United Nations. In the 2007 and 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy,<ref name="canada.com">Template:Cite web</ref> Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and Quebec Premier Jean Charest<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> all spoke in favour of a Canada – EU free trade agreement. In October 2008, Sarkozy became the first French President to address the National Assembly of Quebec. In his speech he spoke out against Quebec separatism, but recognized Quebec as a nation within Canada. He said that, to France, Canada was a friend, and Quebec was family.<ref name="canada.com"/>
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| Template:Flag | 1937 | See also Canada–Greece relations
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| Template:Flag | 1969 | See Canada–Holy See relations
Although the Roman Catholic Church has been territoriality established in Canada since the founding of New France in the early 17th century, Holy See–Canada relations were only officially established under the papacy of Paul VI in the 1960s.
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| Template:Flag | 1964 | See Canada–Hungary relations
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| Template:Flag | 1942 | See Canada–Iceland relations
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| Template:Flag | 1929-12-28 | See Canada–Ireland relations
Canada and Ireland enjoy friendly relations, the importance of these relations centres on the history of Irish migration to Canada. Roughly 4 million Canadians have Irish ancestors, or approximately 14% of Canada's population.
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| Template:Flag | 1947 | See Canada–Italy relations
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| Template:Flag | 2009-04-07 | See also Canada–Kosovo relations
Canada recognized Kosovo on 18 March 2008.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1921 | See Canada–Latvia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1921 | See Canada–Lithuania relations
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| Template:Flag | See Canada–Luxembourg relations
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| Template:Flag | 1964 | See Canada–Malta relations
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| Template:Flag | 1939-01 | See Canada–Netherlands relations
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| Template:Flag | 1995 | See Canada–North Macedonia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1942 | See Canada–Norway relations
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| Template:Flag | 1935 | See Canada–Poland relations
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| Template:Flag | January 1952 | See Canada–Portugal relations
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| Template:Flag | 1967-04-03 | See Canada–Romania relations
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| Template:Flag | 1942-06-12 | See Canada–Russia relations
Canada and Russia benefit from extensive cooperation on trade and investment, energy, democratic development and governance, security and counter-terrorism, northern issues, and cultural and academic exchanges.
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| Template:Flag | See Canada–Serbia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1992 | See Canada–Slovenia relations
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| Template:Flag | 1935 | See Canada–Spain relations
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| Template:Flag | See Canada–Sweden relations
Both countries have strong commitments to peacekeeping, UN reform, development assistance, environmental protection, sustainable development, and the promotion and protection of human rights.{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Fix }} In additional, there are more than 300,000 Canadians of Swedish descent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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| Template:Flag | 1945 | See Canada–Switzerland relations
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| Template:Flag | 1992 | See Canada–Ukraine relations, Embassy of Ukraine in Ottawa
Diplomatic relations were established between Canada and Ukraine on 27 January 1992.<ref>For a detailed discussion of Canada's early diplomatic engagement with Canada, see Bohdan Kordan, "Canadian Ukrainian Relations: Articulating the Canadian Interest," in L. Hajda, ed. (1996), Ukraine in the World: Studies in the International Relations and Security Structure of a Newly Independent State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</ref> Canada opened its embassy in Kyiv<ref>The capital of Ukraine is officially recognized by both the Canadian and Ukrainian governments as Kyiv in all English communications (although not in French).</ref> In April 1992, and the Embassy of Ukraine in Ottawa opened in October of that same year,<ref name="ukremb">Template:Cite web</ref> paid for mostly by donations from the Ukrainian-Canadian community. Ukraine opened a consulate general in Toronto in 1993<ref name="ukremb"/><ref>Embassy of Ukraine in Canada – Political Affairs,</ref> and announced plans to open another in Edmonton in 2008.<ref name="edmjournal">Template:Cite web</ref> The main bilateral agreement signed between the two governments is the joint declaration of the "Special Partnership" between the two countries signed in 1994 and renewed in 2001.<ref name="ukremb"/> |
| Template:Flag | 1926 | See Canada–United Kingdom relations
Canada established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 1 July 1926.Template:Citation needed Both countries are Commonwealth Realms.
The UK governed Canada from 1783 to 1931, when Canada achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic Co-operation Pact,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Commonwealth, CPTPP, Five Eyes, the G7, the G20, the International Criminal Court, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, UKUSA Agreement, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Convention,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and a Trade Continuity Agreement.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
Oceania
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Flag | 1939-09-12 | See Australia–Canada relations
The Commonwealth of Australia and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, the G20, and the United Nations.
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| Template:Flag | 1942 | See Canada–New Zealand relations
Canada and New Zealand are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, the G20, and the United Nations. New Zealand and Canada have a longstanding relationship that has been fostered by both countries' shared history and culture, by their membership the Commonwealth of Nations and links between residents of both countries. The two countries have a common Head of State, currently Template:Current Canadian monarch. New Zealand and Canada also have links through business or trade relations, the United Nations, the Commonwealth and mutual treaty agreements. New Zealand-Canada relations are important to both countries.
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| Template:Flag | 9 August 1976 |
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| Template:Flag | 7 July 1978 |
Canada and the Solomon Islands are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations.
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Other bilateral and plurilateral relations
One important difference between Canadian and American foreign policy has been in relations with communist governments. Canada established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (13 October 1970) long before the Americans did (1 January 1979). It also has maintained trade and diplomatic relations with communist Cuba, despite pressures from the United States.
Arms Control
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Canadian Government guidance for export controls on weapons systems is published by Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite report</ref> Automatic Firearms Country Control List, comprises a list of approved export nations which include as of 2014; (Albania, Australia, Belgium, Botswana, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States).
Selected dates of diplomatic representation abroad
- Australia – 1939 – first high commissioner Charles Burchell
- Belgium – January 1939 – first ambassador Jean Désy
- China – 1943 – first ambassador General Victor Odlum
- France – 1882 – agent without diplomatic status Hector Fabre
- France – 1928 – first minister Philippe Roy
- France – 1944 – first ambassador George Philias Vanier
- International Criminal Court – 2003 – first Judge-President Philippe Kirsch
- Japan – May 1929 – first minister Sir Herbert Marler
- Mexico – January 1944 – first ambassador William Ferdinand Alphonse Turgeon
- Netherlands – January 1939 – first ambassador Jean Désy
- Newfoundland – 1941 – first high commissioner Charles Burchell
- United Kingdom – 1880 – first high commissioner Sir Alexander Galt
- United Nations – first ambassador General Andrew McNaughton
- United States of America – 1926 – first minister Vincent Massey
Multilateralism
Canada is and has been a strong supporter of multilateralism. The country is one of the world's leading peacekeepers, sending soldiers under the U.N. authority around the world.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Canadian former Minister of Foreign Affairs and subsequent Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, is credited for his contributions to modern international peacekeeping, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Canada is committed to disarmament, and is especially noted for its leadership in the 1997 Convention in Ottawa on the prohibition of the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of anti-personnel mines.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In the last century Canada has made efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and small nations alike. This was demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when Lester B. Pearson mollified the tension by proposing peacekeeping efforts and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, but does join in sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, Afghanistan and Libya. It participated with its NATO and OAS allies in the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti respectively.
Despite Canada's track record as a liberal democracy that has embraced the values of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Canada has not been involved in any major plan for Reform of the United Nations Security Council; although the Canadian government does support UN reform, in order to strengthen UN efficiency and effectiveness.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Canada’s relations within the Americas
Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and has been an active member, hosting the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000.
Canada–Caribbean relations
Template:Main Many Caribbean Community countries turn to Canada as a valued partner.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Canadians, particularly Canadian banks and utility companies play an important economic role in the development of former British West Indies colonies. Efforts to improve trade have included the idea of concluding a free trade agreement to replace the 1986 bilateral CARIBCAN agreement. At various times, several Caribbean countries have also considered joining Canadian Confederation as new provinces or territories, although no Caribbean nation has implemented such a proposal. Note that many Caribbean countries are also involved in the Commonwealth of Nations, below.
Canada–Commonwealth of Nations
Template:Main Canada maintains close links to the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, with which Canada has strong historic ties and shares a monarch. It also remains a member of the Commonwealth.
Canada–Europe and Canada–European Union relations
Template:MainCanada is an active participant in discussions stemming from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
Two overseas territories of EU members, Greenland (Denmark) and Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) lie adjacent to Canadian territorial waters.
International organizations
Canada is a member of the following organizations:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Asian Development Bank (ADB) (nonregional member)
- African Development Bank (AfDB) (nonregional member)
- Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
- Arctic Council
- ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
- Association of Caribbean States (ACS) (observer and partner)
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (dialogue partner)
- Australia Group
- Bank for International Settlements (BIS)
- Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) (nonregional member)
- Caribbean Postal Union (CPU)
- Commonwealth of Nations
- Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC)
- European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
- Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
- Group of Seven (G7) –
- Group of Eight (G8)
- Group of Ten (G-10)
- Group of Twenty (G-20)
- Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
- International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (also known as the World Bank)
- International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
- International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
- International Criminal Court (ICCt)
- International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM)
- International Development Association (IDA)
- International Energy Agency (IEA)
- International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
- International Finance Corporation (IFC)
- International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS)
- International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
- International Labour Organization (ILO)
- International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- International Maritime Organization (IMO)
- International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO)
- Interpol (organization) (Interpol)
- International Olympic Committee (IOC)
- International Organization for Migration (IOM)
- Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
- International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)
- International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
- International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)
- Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
- MINUSTAH (United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti)
- MONUSCO (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
- Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
- Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
- Organization of American States (OAS)
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
- Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, International Organisation of La Francophonie (OIF)
- Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
- Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
- Paris Club
- ParlAmericas
- Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)
- Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) (partner)
- Postal Union of the Americas, Spain and Portugal
- Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) (observer)
- United Nations (UN)
- United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID)
- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
- United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
- United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)
- United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
- United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS)
- United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
- United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)
- World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
- Universal Postal Union (UPU)
- World Customs Organization (WCO)
- World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
- World Health Organization (WHO)
- World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
- World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
- World Trade Organization (WTO)
- Zangger CommitteeTemplate:Clear
Template:Div col end Template:Clear
Relations with international groups
| Organization | Main article | Mission of Canada | Heads of mission from Canada |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Flag | Canada–NATO relations | Mission of Canada to the North Atlantic Council (Brussels) | List of permanent representatives of Canada to NATO |
| Template:Flag | Canada–Latin America relations | Mission of Canada to the Organization of American States (Washington, D.C.) | List of permanent representatives and observers of Canada to the Organization of American States |
| Template:Flag | Canada and the United Nations | Mission of Canada to: the UN in New York, the UN in Geneva, the UN in Nairobi, UNESCO in Paris, the FAO in Rome, the ICAO in Montreal |
List of ambassadors of Canada to the United Nations |
Organizations with headquarters in Canada
- International Air Transport Association
- File:Flag of ICAO.svg International Civil Aviation Organization
- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
- North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission
- United Nations Association in Canada
Major treaties signed in Canada
- Ottawa Treaty or Mine Ban Treaty (1997)
- Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)
- Great Peace of Montreal (1701)
Territorial and boundary disputes
Template:More citations needed section Template:Further
Canada and the United States have negotiated the boundary between the countries over many years, with the last significant agreement having taken place in 1984 when the International Court of Justice ruled on the maritime boundary in the Gulf of Maine. Likewise, Canada and France had previously contested the maritime boundary surrounding the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, but accepted a 1992 International Court of Arbitration ruling.
Remaining disputes include managed maritime boundary disputes with the US (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island).
Arctic disputes
A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages through the Arctic Archipelago). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission.<ref name="Lasserre">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a Template:Convert zone. In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to. In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.<ref>Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006) at [1] Template:Webarchive; 2006 news at [2]</ref>
Along with other nations in the Arctic Council, Canada, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Russia, the maritime boundaries in the far north will be decided after countries have completed their submissions, due in 2012. Russia has made an extensive claim based on the Russian position that everything that is an extension of the Lomonosov Ridge should be assigned to Russia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Their submission had been rejected when first submitted by the United Nations in 2001.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus said the US "view Canada’s claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In December 2024, Canada outlined plans to address growing global interest in the Arctic, driven by climate change and geopolitical tensions, including Russia's actions in Ukraine. Recognizing climate change as the central threat, Canada committed to strengthening regional alliances, particularly with the U.S., while enhancing military defenses and asserting sovereignty over the Northwest Passage. It also aimed to resolve territorial disputes with the U.S. and Denmark, revive the Arctic ambassador role, and expand diplomatic ties in Alaska and Greenland. Indigenous leaders, though supportive, stressed the urgent need for better infrastructure in Arctic communities to bolster sovereignty and resilience.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
See also
- List of diplomatic missions in Canada
- List of diplomatic missions of Canada
- List of state and official visits by CanadaTemplate:Clear
References
Further reading
Template:Further Template:Refbegin
- Murray, Robert W. and Paul Gecelovsky, eds. The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) online
- Template:Cite journal
- Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States (1992) online
- Bothwell, Robert. The big chill: Canada and the Cold War (1998) online
- Bothwell, Robert. Alliance and illusion : Canada and the world, 1945-1984 (2007) online
- Bothwell, Robert and Jean Daudelin eds. Canada Among Nations: 100 Years of Canadian Foreign Policy (2009)
- Boucher, Jean-Christophe. "Yearning for a progressive research program in Canadian foreign policy." International Journal 69.2 (2014): 213–228. online commentary H-DIPLO
- Bouka, Yolande, et al. "Is Canada's Foreign Policy Really Feminist? Analysis and Recommendations." Policy 13 (2021). online
- Bow, Brian, and Andrea Lane, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy: Reflections on a Field in Transition (2020) excerpt
- Template:Cite book
- Bugailiskis, Alex, and Andrés Rozental, eds. Canada Among Nations, 2011-2012: Canada and Mexico's Unfinished Agenda (2012) further details
- Carnaghan, Matthew, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006)
- Chapnick, Adam, and Christopher J. Kukucha, eds. The Harper Era in Canadian Foreign Policy: Parliament, Politics, and Canada’s Global Posture (UBC Press, 2016).
- Collins, Jeffrey F. "Defence Procurement and Canadian Foreign Policy." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 275–295.
- Congressional Research Service. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) 2021 Report, by an agency of the U.S. government; not copyright; Updated February 10, 2021.
- Currie, Philip J., 'Canada and Ireland: A Political and Diplomatic History [Vancouver: UBC Press, 2020]
- Eayrs, James. In Defence of Canada. (5 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1964–1983) the standard history
- Fox, Annette Baker. Canada in World Affairs (Michigan State University Press, 1996)
- Template:Citation
- Glazov, Jamie. Canadian Policy Toward Khrushchev's Soviet Union (2003).
- Granatstein, J. L., ed. Canadian foreign policy : historical readings (1986), excerpts from primary sources and scholars online free
- Template:Cite book
- Hampson, Fen Osler, and James A. Baker. Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy (2018)
- Hawes, Michael K., and Christopher John Kirkey, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy in a Unipolar World (Oxford UP, 2017).
- Hillmer, Norman and Philippe Lagassé. Justin Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy: Canada Among Nations 2017 (2018)
- Holmes John W. The Shaping of Peace: Canada and the Search for World Order. (2 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1979, 1982)
- Template:Cite book
- James, Patrick, Nelson Michaud, and Marc O'Reilly, eds. Handbook of Canadian foreign policy (Lexington Books, 2006), essays by experts; 610pp excerpt
- James, Patrick. Canada and Conflict (Oxford University Press, 2012) H-DIPLO online reviews June 2014
- Kirk, John M. and Peter McKenna; Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy UP of Florida (1997).
- Kirton, John and Don Munton, eds. Cases and Readings in Canadian Foreign Policy Since World War II (1992) 24 episodes discussed by experts
- Kukucha, Christopher J. "Neither adapting nor innovating: the limited transformation of Canadian foreign trade policy since 1984." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2018): 1–15.
- McCormick, James M. "Pivoting toward Asia: Comparing the Canadian and American Policy Shifts." American Review of Canadian Studies 46.4 (2016): 474–495.
- McCullough, Colin, and Robert Teigrob, eds. Canada and the United Nations: Legacies, Limits, Prospects (2017).
- Melnyk, George. Canada and the New American Empire: War and Anti-War University of Calgary Press, 2004, highly critical
- Michaud, Nelson. "Balancing Interests and Constraints: The Role of Provinces in the Shaping of Canadian Foreign Policy." in Political Turmoil in a Tumultuous World (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 77–104.
- Miller, Ronnie. Following the Americans to the Persian Gulf: Canada, Australia, and the Development of the New World Order (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994)
- Molot, Maureen Appel. "Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature", International Journal of Canadian Studies (Spring-Fall 1990) 1#2 pp 77–96.
- Nossal, Kim Richard et al. International Policy and Politics in Canada (2010), university textbook; online 1989 edition
- Paris, Roland. "Are Canadians still liberal internationalists? Foreign policy and public opinion in the Harper era." International Journal 69.3 (2014): 274–307. online
- Rochlin, James. Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America (University of British Columbia Press, 1994)
- Sarty, Keigh. “The Fragile Authoritarians: China, Russia and Canadian Foreign Policy.” International Journal 75:4 (December 2020): 614–628. DOI: The fragile authoritarians: China, Russia, and Canadian foreign policy. online review
- Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 1: 1867–1921 (1979), a standard scholarly history
- Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict, 1921–1948. Vol. 2. (University of Toronto Press, 1981), a standard scholarly history; online
- Stairs Denis, and Gilbert R. Winham, eds. The Politics of Canada's Economic Relationship with the United States (University of Toronto Press, 1985)
- Stevenson, Brian J. R. Canada, Latin America, and the New Internationalism: A Foreign Policy Analysis, 1968–1990 (2000)
- Template:Cite book
- Tiessen, Rebecca, and Heather A. Smith. "Canada’s ‘Feminist’ Foreign Policy Under the Harper Conservatives (2006–2015) and Trudeau Liberals (2015–2019) in Global Perspective." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 117-139.
- Wildeman, Jeremy. "Assessing Canada’s foreign policy approach to the Palestinians and Israeli-Palestinian peacebuilding, 1979–2019." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 27.1 (2021): 62–80. online
- Wildeman, Jeremy. "The Middle East in Canadian foreign policy and national identity formation." International Journal 76.3 (2021): 359–383. online
- Wilson, Robert R. and David R. Deener; Canada-United States Treaty Relations (Duke University Press, 1963)
Primary Sources
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Riddell, Walter A. ed. Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939 Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents
External links
Template:Foreign relations of Canada Template:Canada topics Template:Navboxes