Irish phonology

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Template:Short description Template:About Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use Oxford spelling Template:IPA-ga notice

Map of the Irish-speaking areas of Ireland. Places mentioned in this article are named on the map.

Irish phonology varies from dialect to dialect; there is no standard pronunciation of Irish. Therefore, this article focuses on phenomena shared by most or all dialects, and on the major differences among the dialects. Detailed discussion of the dialects can be found in the specific articles: Ulster Irish, Connacht Irish, and Munster Irish.

Irish phonology has been studied as a discipline since the late 19th century, with numerous researchers publishing descriptive accounts of dialects from all regions where the language is spoken. More recently, Irish phonology has been a focus of theoretical linguists.

One of the most important aspects of Irish phonology is that almost all consonants (except Template:IPA) come in pairs, a "broad" and a "slender" pronunciation. Broad consonants are either velarized (Template:IPA; back of tongue is pulled back and slightly up in the direction of the soft palate during articulation) or simply velar (for example, Template:IPA). Slender consonants are palatalized (Template:IPA; tongue pushed up towards the hard palate during articulation). The contrast between broad and slender consonants is crucial in Irish, because the meaning of a word can change if a broad consonant is substituted for a slender consonant or vice versa. For example, the only difference in pronunciation between the words Template:Lang ('cow') and Template:Lang ('alive') is that Template:Lang is pronounced with broad Template:IPA, while Template:Lang is pronounced with slender Template:IPA. The contrast between broad and slender consonants plays a critical role not only in distinguishing the individual consonants themselves, but also in the pronunciation of the surrounding vowels, in the determination of which consonants can stand next to each other, and in the behaviour of words that begin with a vowel. This broad/slender distinction is similar to the hard/soft one of several Slavic languages, like Russian.

Irish shares a number of phonological characteristics with its nearest linguistic relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, as well as with Hiberno-English, which it currently has the most language contact with.

History of the discipline

File:Die araner mundart.djvu Until the end of the 19th century, linguistic discussions of Irish focused either on the traditional grammar (issues like the inflection of nouns, verbs and adjectives) or on the historical development of sounds from Proto-Indo-European through Proto-Celtic to Old Irish. The first descriptive analysis of the phonology of an Irish dialect was Template:Harvcoltxt, which was based on the author's fieldwork in the Aran Islands. This was followed by Template:Harvcoltxt, a phonetic description of the dialect of Meenawannia near Glenties, County Donegal. Template:Harvcoltxt is predominantly a historical account, but has some description of modern dialects as well. Alf Sommerfelt published early descriptions of Ulster dialects (Template:Harvcolnb and Template:Harvcolnb for the village of Torr in Gweedore, Template:Harvcolnb, and Template:Harvcolnb for the now extinct dialect of South Armagh). The dialect of Dunquin on the Dingle Peninsula in Munster was described by Template:Harvcoltxt. From 1944 to 1968 the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies published a series of monographs, each describing the phonology of one local dialect: Template:Harvcoltxt for West Muskerry in County Cork (Ballyvourney, Coolea and vicinity), Template:Harvcoltxt (first published 1945) for Cois Fhairrge in County Galway (Barna, Spiddal, Inverin and vicinity), Template:Harvcoltxt for An Rinn in County Waterford, Template:Harvcoltxt for Tourmakeady in County Mayo, Template:Harvcoltxt for Teelin, County Donegal, Template:Harvcoltxt for Erris in County Mayo. More recent descriptive phonology has been published by Template:Harvcoltxt for Rosguill in northern Donegal, Template:Harvcoltxt for Tangaveane and Commeen (also near Glenties), Template:Harvcoltxt for Iorras Aithneach in Connemara (Kilkieran and vicinity) and Template:Harvcoltxt for the Dingle Peninsula, County Kerry.

Research into the theoretical phonology of Irish began with Template:Harvcoltxt, which follows the principles and practices of Chomsky and Halle's The Sound Pattern of English and which formed the basis of the phonology sections of Template:Harvcoltxt. Dissertations examining Irish phonology from a theoretical point of view include Template:Harvcoltxt, Template:Harvcoltxt in optimality theory, and Template:Harvcoltxt and Template:Harvcoltxt in government phonology.

Consonants

Most dialects of Irish contain at a minimum the consonant phonemes shown in the following chart (see International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols). The consonant Template:IPA is neither broad nor slender.

Consonant phonemes
Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal
broad slender broad slender broad slender
Stop voiceless Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
voiced Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Fricative/
Approximant 		voiceless Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
voiced Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Nasal Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Tap Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Lateral Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink

On- and offglides

Broad (velar or velarized) consonants have a noticeable velar offglide (Template:IPA; a very short vowel-like sound) before front vowels, which sounds like the English Template:IPA but without rounding. Thus Template:Lang Template:IPA ('nine') and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('way, manner') are pronounced Template:IPA and Template:IPA, respectively.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> This velar offglide is labialized (pronounced [w]) after labial consonants, so Template:Lang Template:IPA ('yellow') is pronounced Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Similarly, slender (palatal or palatalised) consonants have a palatal offglide (Template:IPA; like English Template:Anglebracket) before back vowels, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('thick') is pronounced Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

When a broad consonant follows a front vowel, there is a very short vowel sound Template:IPA (called an onglide) just before the consonant, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sell') is pronounced Template:IPA. Similarly, when a slender consonant follows a back vowel, there is an onglide Template:IPA before the consonant, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('place') is pronounced Template:IPA,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>Template:Lang Template:IPA ('drinking' gen.) is pronounced Template:IPA,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang Template:IPA ('understanding') is Template:IPA,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('to us') is Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

These all are also a feature of certain Slavic languages such as Russian, and a feature of Lithuanian.

Allophones

Template:IPA (written as Template:Angbr) has two basic allophones: the labiovelar approximant Template:IPA and the velarized voiced labiodental fricative Template:IPA. The distribution of these allophones varies from dialect to dialect. In Munster, generally only Template:IPA is found,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> and in Ulster generally only Template:IPA is found.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> In Connacht, Template:IPA is found word-initially before vowels (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'is') and Template:IPA in other positions (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'saint', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'autumn', and Template:Lang Template:IPA 'hurried'<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>).

The remaining labial fricatives are typically labiodental Template:IPA, but they as well as the fricative allophone Template:IPA of Template:IPA have bilabial allophones Template:IPA in many dialects; the distribution depends partly on environment (bilabials are more likely to be found adjacent to rounded vowels) and partly on the individual speaker.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Most coronals are alveolar, except broad stops and approximants which are typically dental Template:IPA, and the slender fricative is typically postalveolar Template:IPA. Template:IPA may be realized as alveolo-palatal affricates Template:IPA in a number of dialects, including Tourmakeady,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Erris,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> and Teelin.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Template:IPA may be true palatals Template:IPA or palatovelars Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Template:IPA has three allophones in most dialects: a palatal approximant Template:IPA before vowels (except Template:IPA) and syllable-finally (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'nice', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'will be'); a voiced (post)palatal fricative Template:IPA before consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'sun'); and an intermediate sound Template:IPA (with more frication than Template:IPA but less frication than Template:IPA) before Template:IPA (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'straightened').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Template:IPA has the primary allophone Template:IPA, a palatalized postalveolar fricative.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

In many varieties, Template:IPA and Template:IPA alternate with Template:IPA under a variety of circumstances. For example, as the lenition of Template:IPA and Template:IPA, Template:IPA is replaced by Template:IPA before back vowels, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref ('I would give'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('drove').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> In Munster, Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA after a vowel, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('twenty').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> In Ring, final Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA in monosyllabic words, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('fear').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> In some Ulster varieties, e.g. Tory Island, Template:IPA can be replaced by Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('not'), be deleted word-finally or before Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('greedy') and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('seven').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

As in English, voiceless stops are aspirated (articulated with a puff of air immediately upon release) at the start of a word, while voiced stops may be incompletely voiced but are never aspirated. Voiceless stops are unaspirated after Template:IPA and Template:IPA (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref 'terror'); however, stops remain aspirated after the clitic is Template:IPA (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'it's crooked').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Several researchers (e.g. Template:Harvnb, Template:Harvnb, Template:Harvnb, Template:Harvnb, and Template:Harvnb) use transcriptions like Template:IPA, etc., indicating they consider the stops that occur after voiceless fricatives to be devoiced allophones of the voiced stops rather than unaspirated allophones of the voiceless stops, but this is a minority view.

Fortis and lenis sonorants

In Old Irish, the sonorants (those spelled Template:Angbr) were divided not only into broad and slender types, but also into fortis and lenis types. The precise phonetic definition of these terms is somewhat vague, but the coronal fortis sounds (spelled Template:Angbr) were probably longer in duration and may have had a larger area of contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth than the lenis sounds. Fortis Template:Angbr was probably a normal Template:IPA, while lenis Template:Angbr was a nasalized semivowel Template:IPA, perhaps tending towards a nasalized fricative Template:IPA or Template:IPA when palatalized. By convention, the fortis coronals are transcribed with small capital letters Template:Angbr IPA or capital letters Template:Angbr IPA, the lenis with lower case Template:Angbr IPA (some authors, such as Template:Harvcolnb, instead use Latin Template:Angbr IPA for fortis and Greek Template:Angbr IPA for lenis). Thus Old Irish had four rhotic phonemes Template:IPA, four lateral phonemes Template:IPA, and four coronal nasal phonemes Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Fortis and lenis sonorants contrasted with each other between vowels and word-finally after vowels in Old Irish, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('he shears') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('he may carry'); Template:Lang Template:IPA ('hazel') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sin'); Template:Lang Template:IPA ('stake') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sound').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Word-initially, only the fortis sounds were found, but they became lenis in environments where morphosyntactically triggered lenition was found: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('mystery') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('his mystery'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('provision') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('his provision').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

In the modern language, the four rhotics have been reduced to two in all dialects, Template:IPA having merged as Template:IPA. For the laterals and nasals, some dialects have kept all four distinct, while others have reduced them to three or two distinct phonemes, as summarized in the following table.

Old Irish Ulster Connacht Munster
Rosguill<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Glenties<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Erris<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Connemara<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Aran<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Dingle Peninsula<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> West Muskerry<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>
Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA
Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA word-initially
Template:IPA elsewhere
Note: Template:IPA and Template:IPA are alveolo-palatal consonants.

As for fortis and lenis Template:Angbr, in time the lenis version (nasalized semivowel or labial fricative) came to be pronounced as a regular semivowel or fricative along with nasalization of the preceding vowel. The later loss of Template:IPA between vowels has resulted in phonemically nasalized vowels in some modern dialects (see below), but these are not robustly maintained in any dialect; the strong tendency is to eliminate the nasalization entirely. The original nasalized semivowel is still reflected as Template:Angbr in the spelling, however.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Connacht Irish<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>
Vowel phonemes of Munster Irish<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>
Vowel phonemes of Ulster Irish<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

The vowel sounds vary from dialect to dialect, but in general Connacht and Munster at least agree in having the monophthongs Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and schwa (Template:IPA), which is found only in unstressed syllables; and the diphthongs Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA.

The vowels of Ulster Irish are more divergent and are not discussed in this article.

Vowel backness

The backness of vowels (that is, the horizontal position of the highest point of the tongue) depends to a great extent on the quality (broad or slender) of adjacent consonants. Some researchers (e.g. Template:Harvcolnb, Template:Harvcolnb, Template:Harvnb) have argued that Template:IPA and Template:IPA are actually allophones of the same phoneme, as are Template:IPA and Template:IPA, as in a vertical vowel system. Under this view, these phonemes are not marked at an abstract level as either front vowels or back vowels. Rather, they acquire a specification for frontness or backness from the consonants around them. In this article, however, the more traditional assumption that Template:IPA are four distinct phonemes will be followed. The descriptions of the allophones in this section come from Template:Harvcoltxt; the pronunciations therefore reflect the Munster accent of the Dingle Peninsula. Unless otherwise noted, however, they largely hold for other Munster and Connacht accents as well.

Close vowels

The four close vowel phonemes of Irish are the fully close Template:IPA and Template:IPA, and the near-close Template:IPA and Template:IPA. Their exact pronunciation depends on the quality of the surrounding consonants. Template:IPA is realized as a front Template:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'country'). Between a slender and a broad consonant, the tongue is retracted slightly from this position (for which the IPA symbol is Template:IPA), e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sale'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('berry' gen.). Between two broad consonants, the tongue is retracted even further, almost to the point of being a central vowel (in IPA, Template:IPA): Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sheep'). Template:IPA is a fully back Template:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'fort'), but between a broad and a slender consonant, the tongue is somewhat advanced (IPA Template:IPA), e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('three people'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('eye'). Between two slender consonants, it is advanced even further, to a centralized vowel (IPA Template:IPA): Template:Lang Template:IPA ('quiet').

Approximate ranges of the allophones of close vowels

The near-close vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA show a similar pattern. Template:IPA is realized between slender consonants as a front Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('house' dat.). After a slender consonant and before a broad one, it is a near-front Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('piece'). After a broad consonant and before a slender one, it is a more retracted Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('understands'). Finally, between two broad consonants it is a central Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref ('salty'). Template:IPA is a near-back Template:IPA when all adjacent consonants are broad, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('black'), and a more centralized Template:IPA after a slender consonant, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('rag').

Mid vowels

Approximate ranges of the allophones of mid vowels

The realization of the long close-mid vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants. Template:IPA is a front Template:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'yell'), a centralized Template:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'call'), and a more open centralized Template:IPA between two broad consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'danger'). Template:IPA ranges from a back Template:IPA between two broad consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'turf') to an advanced Template:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'turf' [gen.]) to a centralized Template:IPA between two slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'music' [gen.]).

The short open-mid vowels also vary depending on their environment. Short Template:IPA ranges from a front Template:IPA between slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'will be') to a retracted Template:IPA between a broad and a slender consonant (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'I will be', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'was') to a central Template:IPA when the only adjacent consonant is broad (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'cross' [dat.]). Short Template:IPA between two broad consonants is usually a back Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('stone'), but it is a centralized Template:IPA adjacent to nasal consonants and labial consonants, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('there') and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('soft'). Between a broad and a slender consonant, it is a more open Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('school'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('drink').

Schwa

Unstressed Template:IPA is realized as a near-close, near-front Template:IPA when adjacent to a palatal consonant, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('pike'). Next to other slender consonants, it is a mid-centralized Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('salt water'). Adjacent to broad consonants, it is usually a mid central Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('information'), but when the preceding syllable contains one of the close back vowels Template:IPA, it is realized as a mid-centralized back Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('closing'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('pigs').

Open vowels

Approximate ranges of the allophones of open vowels in Munster

The realization of the open vowels varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants; there is a significant difference between Munster dialects and Connacht dialects as well. In Munster, long Template:IPA and short Template:IPA have approximately the same range of realization: both vowels are relatively back in contact with broad consonants and relatively front in contact with slender consonants. Specifically, long Template:IPA in word-initial position and after broad consonants is a back Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('place'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('beach'). Between a slender and a broad consonant, it is a retracted front Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('will cut'), while between two slender consonants it is a fully front Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('John' voc.). In Dingle, the back allophone is rounded to Template:IPA after broad labials, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('white'), while in Ring, County Waterford, rounded Template:IPA is the usual realization of Template:IPA in all contexts except between slender consonants, where it is a centralized Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Short Template:IPA between two slender consonants is a front Template:IPA, as in Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref ('short'). Between a broad and a slender consonant, it is in most cases a retracted Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('man'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('worn'), but after broad labials and Template:IPA it is a centralized front Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('town'), Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref ('injure'). When it is adjacent only to broad consonants, it is a centralized back Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('son'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('say').

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Approximate ranges of the allophones of open vowels in Connacht

In Connacht varieties,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> the allophones of short Template:IPA are consistently further front than the allophones of long Template:IPA. In Erris, for example, short Template:IPA ranges from a near-open front vowel Template:IPA before slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'earwax') to an open Template:IPA after slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'bright') to a centralized back Template:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'horse'). Long Template:IPA, on the other hand, ranges from a back Template:IPA between broad consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'boat') to an advanced back Template:IPA before slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'to get') to a centralized back Template:IPA after slender consonants (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'fine'). In Toormakeady,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> the back allophone is rounded to Template:IPA after broad labials, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('white'). In Connemara, the allophones of Template:IPA are lengthened in duration, so that only vowel quality distinguishes the allophones of Template:IPA from those of Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Diphthongs

File:Ga ai-au allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of Template:IPA and Template:IPA

The starting point of Template:IPA ranges from a near-open central Template:IPA after broad consonants to an open-mid centralized front Template:IPA after slender consonants, and its end point ranges from a near-close near-front Template:IPA before slender consonants to a centralized Template:IPA before broad consonants.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('rogue'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dog'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('church'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('cure').

The starting point of Template:IPA ranges from a near-open central Template:IPA after broad consonants to an open-mid advanced central Template:IPA after slender consonants, and its end point ranges from a near-close near-back Template:IPA before broad consonants to a centralized Template:IPA before slender consonants.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb.</ref> Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('deaf'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('improvement'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('speak'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('memory'). In West Muskerry and the Dingle Peninsula, however, the starting point of Template:IPA is rounded and further back after broad consonants,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('goat').

File:Ga ia-ua allophones.svg
Approximate ranges of the allophones of Template:IPA and Template:IPA

The starting point of Template:IPA ranges from a close front Template:IPA after slender consonants to a retracted Template:IPA after word-initial broad Template:IPA (the only context in which it appears after a broad consonant). Its end point ranges from a mid central Template:IPA before broad consonants to a close-mid centralized front Template:IPA before slender consonants.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sense'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('ever'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('devils').

The starting point of Template:IPA is consistently a close back Template:IPA while the end point ranges from Template:IPA to Template:IPA:<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang Template:IPA ('above'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('lamb'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('strike').

Nasalized vowels

In general, vowels in Irish are nasalized when adjacent to nasal consonants. For some speakers, there are reported to be minimal pairs between nasal vowels and oral vowels, indicating that nasal vowels are also separate phonemes; these generally result from an earlier nasalized semivowel Template:IPA (historically the lenited version of Template:IPA), that has since been lost. However, the contrast is not robust in any dialect; most published descriptions say that contrastively nasal vowels are present in the speech of only some (usually older) speakers. Potential minimal pairs include those shown in the table below.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Nasal vowel Oral vowel
Spelling Pronunciation Gloss Spelling Pronunciation Gloss
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'doubt' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'yarn'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'ford' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'luck'
Template:Lang Template:IPA (in phrase
Template:Lang
'in front of, opposite')		 Template:Lang Template:IPA 'righteous'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'sorrow' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'hound'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'pairs of shears' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'two people'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'autumn' (genitive) Template:Lang Template:IPA 'limit'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'hands' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'day'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'shooting' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'generous'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'poison' (genitive) Template:Lang Template:IPA 'washing'
Template:Lang Template:IPA 'oar' (genitive) Template:Lang Template:IPA 'saying'

In addition, where a vowel is nasalized because it is adjacent to a nasal consonant, it often retains its nasalization in related forms where the consonant is no longer nasal. For example, the nasal Template:IPA of Template:Lang Template:IPA ('mother') is replaced by nonnasal Template:IPA in the phrase Template:Lang Template:IPA ('his mother'), but the vowel remains nasalized.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Similarly, in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('snow') the vowel after the Template:IPA is nasalized, while in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('the snow' gen.), the Template:IPA is replaced by Template:IPA in some northern dialects, but the nasalized vowel remains.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Phonotactics

The most notable aspects of Irish phonotactics revolve around the behaviour of consonant clusters. Here it is important to distinguish between clusters that occur at the beginnings of words and those that occur after vowels, although there is overlap between the two groups.

Word-initial consonant clusters

File:2C cluster nonmut.svg
A summary of the two-consonant clusters available in non-mutation environments
File:2C cluster mut2.svg
A summary of the two-consonant clusters available in mutation environments

Irish words can begin with clusters of two or three consonants. In general, all the consonants in a cluster agree in their quality, i.e. either all are broad or all are slender. Two-consonant clusters consist of an obstruent consonant followed by a liquid or nasal consonant (however, labial obstruents may not be followed by a nasal); examples (from Template:Harvcolnb) include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('milking'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('fine'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('button'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('law'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('usual'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('idiot'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('slice'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('snow'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('poker'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('long for'). In addition, Template:IPA and Template:IPA may be followed by a voiceless stop, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('purse') and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('story'). Further, the cluster Template:IPA occurs in the word Template:Lang Template:IPA ('women') and a few forms related to it. Three-consonant clusters consist of Template:IPA or Template:IPA plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid. Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('rumpus'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('scream'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('flash'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('fun'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('streak').

One exception to quality agreement is that broad Template:IPA is found before slender labials (and for some speakers in Connemara and Dingle before Template:IPA as well<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>). Examples include: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('berries'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('scythe'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dependent'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('inspire'), and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('story').

In the environment of an initial consonant mutation, there is a much wider range of possible onset clusters;<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> for example, in a lenition environment the following occur: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('tasted'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('broke'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('practiced'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bent'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('stuck'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('acted'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('slipped'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('swam'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('reached'). In an eclipsis environment, the following are found: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('flower'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('years'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('you would break'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('warp'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bridge'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('ladder'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('you would dress'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('you would leave'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('you would act').

In Donegal, Mayo, and Connemara dialects (but not usually on the Aran Islands), the coronal nasals Template:IPA can follow only Template:IPA respectively in a word-initial cluster. After other consonants, they are replaced by Template:IPA:<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang Template:IPA ('hill'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('women'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('liking'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('long for').

Under lenition, Template:IPA become Template:IPA as expected in these dialects, but after the definite article an they become Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('snow'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('snow' [lenited form]), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('the snow' gen.).

Post-vocalic consonant clusters and epenthesis

File:Epenthesis cluster.svg
Clusters subject to epenthesis

Like word-initial consonant clusters, post-vocalic consonant clusters usually agree in broad or slender quality. The only exception here is that broad Template:IPA, not slender Template:IPA, appears before the slender coronals Template:IPA:<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang Template:IPA ('two people'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('trade'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('doors'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('handle'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('advice').

A cluster of Template:IPA, Template:IPA, or Template:IPA followed by a labial or dorsal consonant (except the voiceless stops Template:IPA, Template:IPA) is broken up by an epenthetic vowel Template:IPA:<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang Template:IPA ('abrupt'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('blue'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('mistake'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('certain'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('service'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('anger'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dark'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bold'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dove'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('pleasant'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sparrow'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('venom'), Template:Lang, Template:IPA (a name for Ireland), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('name'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('mind'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('animal').

There is no epenthesis, however, if the vowel preceding the cluster is long or a diphthong: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('wrinkle'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('term'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('insight'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('duty'). There is also no epenthesis into words that are at least three syllables long: Template:Lang Template:IPA ('firmament'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('throat'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dandelion'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('Carmelite').

Phonological processes

Vowel-initial words

Vowel-initial words in Irish exhibit behaviour that has led linguists to suggest that the vowel sound they begin with on the surface is not actually the first sound in the word at a more abstract level. Specifically, when a clitic ending in a consonant precedes a word beginning with the vowel, the consonant of the clitic surfaces as either broad or slender, depending on the specific word in question. For example, the Template:Anglebracket of the definite article Template:Lang ('the') is slender before the word Template:Lang ('wonder') but broad before the word Template:Lang ('age'):<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>Template:Lang Template:IPA ('the wonder' gen.) vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('the age').

One analysis of these facts<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> is that vowel-initial words actually begin, at an abstract level of representation, with a kind of "empty" consonant that consists of nothing except the information "broad" or "slender". Another analysis is that vowel-initial words, again at an abstract level, all begin with one of two semivowels, one triggering palatalization and the other triggering velarization of a preceding consonant.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Lengthening before fortis sonorants

Where reflexes of the Old Irish fortis sonorants appear in syllable-final position (in some cases, only in word-final position), they trigger a lengthening or diphthongization of the preceding vowel in most dialects of Irish.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The details vary from dialect to dialect.

In Donegal and Mayo, lengthening is found only before Template:Anglebracket, before Template:Anglebracket (except when a vowel follows), and in a few words also before word-final Template:Anglebracket,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('top'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('tall'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('inch'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('spinning wheel'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('yonder').

In Connemara,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> the Aran Islands,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> and Munster,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> lengthening is found generally not only in the environments listed above, but also before Template:Anglebracket (unless a vowel follows) and before word-final Template:Anglebracket. For example, the word Template:Lang ('hole') is pronounced Template:IPA in all of these regions, while Template:Lang ('grip') is pronounced Template:IPA in Connemara and Aran and Template:IPA in Munster.

Because vowels behave differently before broad sonorants than before slender ones in many cases, and because there is generally no lengthening (except by analogy) when the sonorants are followed by a vowel, there is a variety of vowel alternations between different related word-forms. For example, in Dingle<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Template:Lang ('head') is pronounced Template:IPA with a diphthong, but Template:Lang (the genitive singular of the same word) is pronounced Template:IPA with a long vowel, while Template:Lang (the plural, meaning 'heads') is pronounced Template:IPA with a short vowel.

This lengthening has received a number of different explanations within the context of theoretical phonology. All accounts agree that some property of the fortis sonorant is being transferred to the preceding vowel, but the details about what property that is vary from researcher to researcher. Template:Harvcoltxt<ref>also repeated in Template:Harvcolnb</ref> argue that the fortis sonorant is tense (a term only vaguely defined phonetically) and that this tenseness is transferred to the vowel, where it is realized phonetically as vowel length and/or diphthongization. Template:Harvcoltxt argues that the triggering consonant is underlyingly associated with a unit of syllable weight called a mora; this mora then shifts to the vowel, creating a long vowel or a diphthong. Template:Harvcoltxt expands on that analysis to argue that the fortis sonorants have an advanced tongue root (that is, the bottom of the tongue is pushed upward during articulation of the consonant) and that diphthongization is an articulatory effect of this tongue movement.

Devoicing

Where a voiced obstruent or Template:IPA comes into contact with Template:IPA, the Template:IPA is absorbed into the other sound, which then becomes voiceless (in the case of Template:IPA, devoicing is to Template:IPA). Devoicing is found most prominently in the future of first conjugation verbs (where Template:IPA is spelled Template:Anglebracket) and in the formation of verbal adjectives (where Template:IPA is spelled Template:Anglebracket). For example, the verb Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sweep') ends in the voiced consonant Template:IPA, but its future tense Template:Lang Template:IPA ('will sweep') and verbal adjective Template:Lang Template:IPA ('swept') have the voiceless consonant Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Sandhi

Irish exhibits a number of external sandhi effects, i.e. phonological changes across word boundaries, particularly in rapid speech. The most common type of sandhi in Irish is assimilation, which means that a sound changes its pronunciation in order to become more similar to an adjacent sound. One type of assimilation in Irish is found when a coronal consonant (Template:Anglebracket) changes from being broad to being slender before a word that begins with a slender coronal consonant and vice versa. For example, Template:Lang Template:IPA ('deceive') ends with a broad Template:Anglebracket, but in the phrase Template:Lang Template:IPA ('it deceived me'), the Template:Anglebracket has become slender because the following word, Template:Lang, starts with a slender coronal consonant.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Template:Anglebracket may also assimilate to the place of articulation of a following consonant, becoming labial before a labial consonant, palatal before a palatal consonant, and velar before a velar consonant.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> For example, Template:Anglebracket of Template:Lang Template:IPA ('one') becomes Template:IPA in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('a lame one') and Template:IPA in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('a scabbed one'). A voiced consonant at the end of a word may devoice when the next word begins with a voiceless consonant,<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> as in Template:Lang Template:IPA ('he bent'), where Template:IPA of Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bent') became Template:IPA before the voiceless Template:IPA of Template:Lang.

Stress

In Irish, words normally have only one stressed syllable (ˈ◌). Outside of Munster this is usually the first syllable of the word, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('left' [verb]) and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('dishonor').<ref> Template:Harvcolnb</ref> However, certain words, especially adverbs and loanwords, have stress on a noninitial syllable, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('only'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('tobacco').

Compound words

In most compound words, there are four possible stress patterns:<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

  1. In most compounds, primary stress falls on the first member and a secondary stress (ˌ◌) falls on the second member, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('spent bog').
  2. In compounds beginning with Template:Lang, Template:Lang and Template:Lang ('possible'), the prefix takes secondary stress, while the following element takes primary stress, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('unintelligible').
  3. In compounds beginning with Template:Lang (intensive prefix), Template:Lang ('perpetual'), Template:Lang and Template:Lang, both the prefix and the following syllable take primary stress, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('very good'). Note that Template:Lang (meaning 'in-, un-') and Template:Lang (meaning 'bio-') follow the group 1 (primary-secondary) stress pattern.
  4. The last group (Template:Lang) show a mix of:
    1. variation between primary-primary and primary-secondary stress, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('true God') vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('spring water')
    2. variation between primary-secondary and primary-zero stress, particularly in old compounds now treated as simple words, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('sorrowful music, lament'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('lullaby').
    3. variation in stress pattern depending on whether the second element is a noun or adjective, e.g. primary-primary Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bad person') vs. primary-secondary Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bad-mannered'), primary-primary Template:Lang Template:IPA ('Archbishop') vs. primary-secondary Template:Lang Template:IPA ('bad-mannered')

Munster

In Munster, stress is attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the second or third syllable of a word, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('girl'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('request').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> In the now-extinct accent of East Mayo, stress was attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the same way as in Munster; in addition, stress was attracted to a short vowel before word-final Template:Anglebracket when that word was also final in its utterance.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> For example, Template:Lang ('horse') was pronounced Template:IPA in isolation or as the last word of a sentence, but as Template:IPA in the middle of a sentence.

In Munster, stress is attracted to Template:IPA in the second syllable of a word if it is followed by Template:IPA, provided the first syllable (and third syllable, if there is one) contains a short vowel. Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA ('lame') and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('chips'). However, if the first or third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, stress is attracted to that syllable instead, and the Template:IPA before Template:IPA is reduced to Template:IPA as normal, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('listen'), Template:Lang Template:IPATemplate:Ref ('wether').<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Samples

The following table shows some sample sentences from the Aran dialect.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

IPA Spelling Translation
Template:IPA Template:LangTemplate:Ref Template:Lang He was looking out the window when I went past.
Template:IPA Template:Lang He wouldn't see a hole through a ladder (i.e. he's very near-sighted).
Template:IPA Template:Lang I am wet through and through.
Template:IPA Template:Lang He took a large stone and he threw it against the window.
Template:IPA Template:Lang He came in in a rage.
―Template:IPA
―Template:IPA		 Template:LangTemplate:Ref Template:Lang
Template:Lang		 ―Did you pay much for the turf?
―We certainly did, considering how little there is of it.
Template:IPA Template:LangTemplate:Ref Template:Lang I come there every day but often I'm not very welcome.
Template:IPA Template:LangTemplate:Ref Template:Lang I have heard tell that we'll have a wet summer this year, but it seems to me that that story is strange.
Template:IPA Template:Lang Are the potatoes as good as he said?
Template:IPA Template:LangTemplate:Ref Template:Lang The Irish spoken in Munster isn't the same as our Irish.

The first eight chapters of Peadar Ua Laoghaire's autobiography Mo Sgéal Féin at Wikisource include recordings of the text being read by a native speaker of Muskerry (Munster) Irish.

Comparison with other languages

Scottish Gaelic and Manx

Template:Main Many of the phonological processes found in Irish are found also in its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. For example, both languages contrast "broad" and "slender" consonants, but only at the coronal and dorsal places of articulation; both Scottish Gaelic and Manx have lost the distinction in labial consonants. The change of Template:IPA etc. to Template:IPA etc. is found in Manx and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic. Evidence from written manuscripts suggests it had begun in Scottish Gaelic as early as the 16th century and was well established in both Scottish Gaelic and Manx by the late 17th to early 18th century.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> Lengthening or diphthongization of vowels before fortis sonorants is also found in both languages.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> The stress pattern of Scottish Gaelic is the same as that in Connacht and Ulster Irish, while in Manx, stress is attracted to long vowels and diphthongs in noninitial syllables, but under more restricted conditions than in Munster.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Manx and many dialects of Scottish Gaelic share with Ulster Irish the property of not reducing unstressed Template:IPA to Template:IPA before Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref>

Hiberno-English

Irish pronunciation has had a significant influence on the features of Hiberno-English.<ref>Template:Harvcolnb</ref> For example, most of the vowels of Hiberno-English (with the exception of Template:IPA) correspond to vowel phones of Irish. The Irish stops Template:IPA are common realizations of the English phonemes Template:IPA. Hiberno-English also allows Template:IPA where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English, such as before an unstressed vowel (e.g. Haughey Template:IPA) and at the end of a word (e.g. McGrath Template:IPA). There is epenthesis in words like film Template:IPA and form Template:IPA.

See also

Notes

Footnotes

Template:Reflist

References

Template:Refbegin

Template:Refend

Template:Irish linguistics Template:Language phonologies

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