Khoemana
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ǃOrakobab, or Khoemana, also known as Korana, ǃOra, or Griqua, is a moribund Khoe language of South Africa.
Names
"Khoemana" (from khoe 'person' + mana 'language') is more commonly known as either Korana Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell (also ǃOrakobab, ǃOra, Kora, Koraqua) or Griqua (also Gri Template:IPA, Xri, Xiri, Xirikwa).Template:Notetag The name 'Korana' reflects the endonym ǃOra Template:IPA or ǃGora Template:IPA, referring to the ǃOra people.Template:Notetag Sometimes ǃOra is also known as Cape Khoe or Cape Hottentot, though the latter has become considered derogatory. The various names are often treated as different languages (called South Khoekhoe when taken together), but they do not correspond to any actual dialect distinctions, and speakers may use "Korana" and "Griqua" interchangeably. Both names are also used more broadly, for example for the Griqua people. There exist (or existed) several dialects of Khoemana, but the details are unknown.<ref name=killian>Killian, D. Khoemana and the Griqua</ref>
Phonology
ǃOrakobab (Khoemana) is closely related to Khoekhoe, and the sound systems are broadly similar. The strongly aspirated Khoekhoe affricates are simply aspirated plosives Template:IPA in ǃOrakobab. However, ǃOrakobab has an ejective velar affricate, Template:IPA,Template:Notetag which is not found in Khoekhoe, and a corresponding series of clicks, Template:IPA. Beach (1938)<ref>D. Beach, 1938. The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge.</ref> reported that the Khoekhoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate, Template:IPA, a common realisation or allophone of Template:IPA in languages with clicks, and it might be expected that this is true for ǃOrakobab as well. In addition, about half of all lexical words in ǃOrakobab began with a click, compared to a quarter in Khoekhoe.
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | oral | oral | nasal | |
| Close | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||
In Korana, [oe] and [oa] can be pronounced as [we] and [wa].
- The phoneme [k] can be realized as /c/ before [e] or [i].
- An intervocalic [p] and [b] are sometimes realized as /β/.
- [s] is stated to be alveolar-postalveolar when not followed by a close front vowel [i], [ĩ], or [e].
- The aspirated phoneme [tʰ] is realized as an affricate sound /ts/ when followed by a close front vowel [i], [ĩ], or [e].
- The aspirated sound [kʰ] can sometimes be realized as [kx]. Some Griqua speakers may pronounce [kʰ] as [kʼ].
- The [tsʼ] sound only seldom occurs.
- [m] and [n] can occur syllabically as [m̩] and [n̩].
- The trilled [r] can also be realized as a flapped [ɾ] in some speech.
- Voicing can be very weak in Khoemana in casual speech, so voiced plosives can be hard to distinguish from voiceless plosives.<ref name="killian" />
There are four tones in ǃOrakobab: high (notated with an acute accent), rising (notated with a caron), mid (no accent), and falling (notated with a circumflex).
Population
Reports as to the number of ǃOrakobab speakers are contradictory, but it is clear that it is nearly extinct. It was thought to be extinct until the discovery of four elderly speakers around Bloemfontein and Kimberley.<ref>Du Plessis, Menan (2011) "Collection of sound files for inclusion in a dictionary of Korana and eventual integration with a corpus of heritage texts"</ref> A 2009 report by Don Killian of the University of Helsinki estimated that there were less than 30 speakers at the time.<ref name=killian/> Matthias Brenzinger reported in 2012 that one possible speaker remained, but that she refused to speak the language.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The discrepancies could be because the language has multiple dialects and goes by several names, with scholars not always referring to the same population.<ref name=killian/> ǃOrakobab is listed as "critically endangered" in UNESCO's Language Atlas.<ref name=unesco >UNESCO Xiri at UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</ref> The loss of this endangered language would have a significant impact on the heritage and culture of ǃOrakobab speakers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Attestation
Robust ǃOrakobab (before more recent language attrition) is principally recorded in an 1879 notebook by Lucy Lloyd, which contains five short stories; some additional work was done in Ponelis (1975).<ref>Ponelis, F. A. (1975). "ǃOra Clicks: Problems and Speculations." Bushman and Hottentot Linguistic Studies, pp 51–60. ed. Anthony Traill. Communications from the African Studies Institute, no 2. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg.</ref> As of 2009, the EuroBABEL project is searching for remaining speakers.
History
Template:See also The people and their language first began to attract scholarly attention in the 1660s, coinciding with Dutch colonial efforts in the Cape of Good Hope and the resulting armed conflicts.<ref name=killian/> At the time, ǃOrakobab was widely spoken throughout the coastal regions of South Africa. After years of attrition during the colonial era to the 1930s, and under apartheid from 1948 to 1994, the language has all but vanished.<ref name=killian/> Currently, speakers of ǃOrakobab are not only scarce but scattered, due to forced migrations during the apartheid era. This has rendered the language particularly vulnerable.<ref name=erasmus>Erasmus, P. Dreams and Visions in Koranna and Griqua Revival in Colonial and Post-Apartheid South Africa</ref>
Notes
References
Further reading
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- Maingard, L.F. 1962. Korana Folktales. Grammar and Texts. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press