Nanzhao

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Nanzhao

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Kingdom of Nanzhao as of 879 AD

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Bai (majority spoken)
Middle Chinese (literary)


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| label135 = Today part of | data135 = China
Laos
Myanmar
Vietnam

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| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | module | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:Kingdom|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:Kingdom|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }} Template:Infobox Chinese

Nanzhao (Template:Lang-zh), also spelled Nanchao, Template:Lit,<ref name="Name1">Template:Cite book</ref> Yi language: ꂷꏂꌅ, Mashynzy) was a dynastic kingdom that flourished in what is now southwestern China and northern Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries, during the mid/late Tang dynasty. It was centered on present-day Yunnan in China, with its capitals in modern-day Dali City. The kingdom was officially called Dameng (大蒙) from 738 to 859 AD, Dali (大禮) from 859 to 877 and Dafengmin (大封民) from 877 to 902.

History

File:Jinsuo dao-Nanzhao dragon.jpg
The Nanzhao Dragon on Nanzhao Folklore Island, Erhai Lake, Yunnan
File:Jinsuo dao-panorama.jpg
Nanzhao Folklore Island
File:Kunming Oct 2007 007.jpg
Figure of Guanyin, 9th century, Nanzhao

Origins

File:南诏中兴画卷-细奴逻.jpg
Xinuluo (r. 649-674) from the Nanzhao Tuzhuan (899)
File:南诏中兴画卷-逻盛.jpg
Luoshengyan (r. 674-712) from the Nanzhao Tuzhuan (899)

Nanzhao encompassed many ethnic and linguistic groups. Some historians believe that the majority of the population were the Bai people<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> (then known as the "White Man") and the Yi peopleTemplate:Sfn (then known as the "Black Man"), but that the elite spoke a variant of Nuosu (also called Yi), a Northern Loloish language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Scriptures unearthed from Nanzhao were written in the Bai language.Template:Sfn

The Cuanman people came to power in Yunnan during Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign in 225. By the fourth century they had gained control of the region, but they rebelled against the Sui dynasty in 593 and were destroyed by a retaliatory expedition in 602. The Cuan split into two groups known as the Black and White Mywa.Template:Sfn The White Mywa (Baiman) tribes, who are considered the predecessors of the Bai people, settled on the fertile land of western Yunnan around the alpine fault lake Erhai. The Black Mywa (Wuman), considered to be predecessors of the Yi people, settled in the mountainous regions of eastern Yunnan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These tribes were called Mengshe (蒙舍), Mengxi (蒙嶲), Langqiong (浪穹), Tengtan (邆賧), Shilang (施浪), and Yuexi (越析). Each tribe was known as a zhao.<ref name ="knowledge"/><ref name = "Faded">Template:Cite web</ref> In academia, the ethnic composition of the Nanzhao kingdom's population has been debated for a century.Template:Sfn Some non-Chinese scholars subscribed to the theory that the Tai ethnic group was a major component and later moved south into modern-day Thailand and Laos.<ref>Template:Cite book Translated from Template:Cite book</ref> The historiography of the origins of Nanzhao people has attracted much interest.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Among them, Mengshe zhao was recorded as Ma Shizi ( ꂷꏂꌅ ma shy nzy ) in Yi classics, which means "King of Golden Bamboo". Because it is located in the south, Mengshe was called Nanzhao or southern Zhao.

Founding

In 649, the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (細奴邏, Senola), son of Jiadupang and grandson of Shelong, founded the Great Meng (大蒙) and took the title of Qijia Wang (奇嘉王; "Outstanding King"). He acknowledged Tang suzerainty.<ref name = "knowledge">Template:Cite web</ref> In 652, Xinuluo absorbed the White Mywa realm of Zhang Lejinqiu, who ruled Erhai Lake and Cang Mountain. This event occurred peacefully as Zhang made way for Xinuluo of his own accord. The agreement was consecrated under an iron pillar in Dali. Thereafter the Black and White Mywa acted as warriors and ministers respectively.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name = "Faded"/> In 655, Xinuluo sent his eldest son to Chang'an to ask for the Tang dynasty's protection. The Tang emperor appointed Xinuluo as prefect of Weizhou, sent him an embroidered official robe, and sent troops to defeat rebellious tribes in 672, thus enhancing Xinuluou's position.Template:Sfn Xinuluo was succeeded by his son, Luoshengyan, who travelled to Chang'an to make tribute to the Tang. In 704, the Tibetan Empire made the White Mywa tribes into tributaries, whilst subjugating the Black Mywa.Template:Sfn In 712, Luoshengyan established a walled city at Yongchang and in 713, Luoshengyan was succeeded by his son, Shengluopi, who was also on good terms with the Tang. He was succeeded by his son, Piluoge, in 733.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Piluoge began expanding his realm in the early 730s. He first annexed the neighboring zhao of Mengsui, whose ruler, Zhaoyuan, was blind. Piluoge supported Zhaoyuan's son, Yuanluo, in his accession, and in turn weakened Mengsui. After Zhaoyuan was assassinated, Piluoge drove Yuanluo from Mengsui and annexed the territory. The remaining Template:Transliteration banded together against Piluoge, who thwarted them with an alliance with the Tang dynasty. Not long after 733, the Tang official Yan Zhenghui cooperated with Piluoge in a successful attack on the zhao of Shilang, and rewarded the Mengshe rulers with titles.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

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Two other Template:Transliteration also joined in the attack on Shilang: Dengdan ruled by Mieluopi and Langqiong ruled by Duoluowang. Piluoge moved to eliminate these competitors by bribing Wang Yu, the military commissioner of Jiannan (modern Sichuan based in Chengdu) to convince the Tang court to support him in uniting the Six Zhaos. Piluoge then made a surprise attack on Dengdan and defeated the forces of both Mieluopi and the ruler of Shilang, Shiwangqian. The zhao of Yuexi was annexed when its ruler, Bochong, was murdered by his wife's lover, Zhangxunqiu. Zhangxunqiu was summoned by the Tang court and beaten to death. The territory of Yuexi was bestowed to Piluoge. Bochong's son, Yuzeng, fled and resisted Nanzhao's expansion for some time before he was defeated by Piluoge's son, Geluofeng, and drowned in the Changjiang. Piluoge's step-grandson grew jealous of the preeminence of his step-father, Geluofeng, and sought to create his own zhao by allying with the Tibetan Empire. His plans leaked out and he was killed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In the year 737 AD, Piluoge (皮羅閣) united the Six Zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao (Southern Zhao). In 738, the Tang granted Piluoge the Chinese-style name Meng Guiyi ("return to righteousness")Template:Sfn and the title of "Prince of Yunnan".Template:Sfn Piluoge set up a new capital at Taihe in 739, (the site of modern-day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali). Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack and it was in the midst of rich farmland.Template:Sfn Under the reign of Piluoge, the White Mywa were removed from eastern Yunnan and resettled in the west. The Black and White Mywa were separated to create a more solidified caste system of ministers and warriors.<ref name = "Faded"/>

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Territorial expansion

Template:Main Piluoge died in 748, and was succeeded by his son Geluofeng (閣羅鳳).Template:Sfn When the Chinese prefect of Yunnan attempted to rob Nanzhao envoys in 750, Geluofeng launched the Tianbao War against the Tang dynasty, killing the prefect and seizing nearby Chinese territory. In retaliation, the Tang governor of Jiannan (modern Sichuan), Xianyu Zhongtong, attacked Nanzhao with an army of 80,000 soldiers in 751. He was defeated by Duan Jianwei (段俭魏) with heavy losses (many due to disease) at Xiaguan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Duan Jianwei's grave is two kilometres west of Xiaguan, and the Tomb of Ten Thousand Soldiers is located in Tianbao Park. In 754, another Tang army of 100,000 soldiers, led by General Li Mi (李宓), approached the kingdom from the north, but never made it past Mu'ege. By the end of 754, Geluofeng had established an alliance with the Tibetans against the Tang that would last until 794.Template:Sfn In the same year, Nanzhao gained control of the salt marshes of Yanyuan County, which it used to regulate the salt to its people, a practice that would continue during the reign of the Dali kingdom.Template:Sfn In 756, Nanzhao captured Yuesui Commandery and the Xilu district magistrate Zheng Hui, who went on to serve as Nanzhao's imperial tutor and eventual prime minister.Template:Sfn

Geluofeng accepted a Tibetan title and acted as part of the Tibetan Empire. His successor, Yimouxun, continued the pro-Tibetan policy. In 779, Yimouxun participated in a large Tibetan attack on the Tang dynasty. However the burden of having to support every single Tibetan military campaign against the Tang soon weighed on him. In 794, he launched the battle of Shenchuan to break up with Tibet and switched sides to the Tang.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 795, Yimouxun attacked a Tibetan stronghold in Kunming. The Tibetans retaliated in 799 but were repelled by a joint Tang-Nanzhao force. In 801, Nanzhao and Tang forces defeated a contingent of Tibetan and Abbasid slave soldiers in the Battle of Dulu. More than 10,000 Tibetan/Arabs soldiers were killed and some 6,000 were captured.Template:Sfn Nanzhao captured seven Tibetan cities and five military garrisons while more than a hundred fortifications were destroyed. This defeat shifted the balance of power in favor of the Tang and Nanzhao.Template:Sfn

Attack on Sichuan

During the reign of Quanlongcheng (r.809-816), the ruler behaved without constraint, and was killed by Wang Cuodian, a powerful governor. The military generals in Nanzhao had become powerful after the victory in Tibet. Wang Cuodian installed a puppet ruler Quanlisheng. However, Quanlisheng quickly took power back three years later before he was himself replaced by Quanfengyou, with the aid of the generals. Quanfengyou and Wang Cuodian, who remained a powerful general, were instrumental in the expansion of Nanzhao territory.Template:Sfn Nanzhao expanded into Myanmar,Template:Sfn conquering the Pyu city-states in the 820s and destroying the city of Halin in 832. They returned to Halin in 835 and carried off many prisoners.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Campaigns against the states of Minuo, Michen, Kunlun, Water Zhenla, and Land Zhenla are mentioned.Template:Sfn

In 829, Wang Cuodian attacked Chengdu, but withdrew the following year.Template:Sfn Wang Cuodian's invasion was not to take Sichuan but to push its territorial boundaries north and take the resources south of Chengdu.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> The advance of Nanzhao's army was almost unopposed; the attack took advantage of chaos created in Sichuan by its governor, Du Yuanying. Bilateral relations between Nanzhao and Tang became delicate, as Wang Cuodian refused to retreat from Yizhou, saying that Nanzhao had remained a loyal tributary and was only punishing Du Yuanying at the request of Tang soldiers.Template:Sfn

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In the 830s, they conquered the neighboring kingdoms of Kunlun to the east and Nuwang to the south.Template:Sfn

Invasion of Annan

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In 846, Nanzhao raided the southern Tang circuit of Annan.Template:Sfn Despite the raid, Nanzhao wished to maintain diplomatic contact with the Tang, but the Tang suspended official ties with Nanzhao in 854 when they refused to accept a Nanzhao envoy bearing a rhinoceros as a gift.Template:Sfn Relations with the Tang broke down after the death of Emperor Xuanzong in 859, when the Nanzhao king Shilong treated Tang envoys sent to receive his condolences with contempt, and launched raids on Bozhou and Annan.Template:Sfn Shilong proclaimed himself emperor and tried to negotiate a marriage alliance as well as the status of "younger brother" with the Tang dynasty.Template:Sfn Shilong also killed Wang Cuodian. To recruit for his wars, Shilong ordered all men over the age 15 to join the army.<ref name="Faded"/> Anti-Tang locals allied with highland people, who appealed to Nanzhao for help, and as a result invaded the area in 860, briefly taking Songping before being driven out by a Tang army the next year.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Prior to Li Hu's arrival, Nanzhao had already seized Bozhou. When Li Hu led an army to retake Bozhou, the Đỗ family gathered 30,000 men, including contingents from Nanzhao to attack the Tang.Template:Sfn When Li Hu returned, he learned the Vietnamese rebels and Nanzhao had taken control over Annan out of his hand. In December 860, Songping fell to the rebels and Hu fled to Yongzhou.Template:Sfn In summer 861, Li Hu retook Songping but Nanzhao forces moved around and seized Yongzhou. Hu was banished to Hainan island and was replaced by Wang Kuan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Shilong attacked Annan again in 863, occupying it for three years. With the aid of locals, Nanzhao invaded with an army of 50,000 and besieged Annan's capital Songping in mid-January.Template:Sfn On 20 January, the defenders led by Cai Xi killed a hundred of the besiegers. Five days later, Cai Xi captured, tortured, and killed a group of besiegers known as the Púzǐ or Wangjuzi (according to some historians, the Puzi were ancestors of the Wa people. Description about them is indefinite<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>). A local official named Liang Ke was related to them, and defected as a result. On 28 January, a Nanzhao Buddhist monk, possibly from the Indian continent, was wounded by an arrow while strutting to and fro naked outside the southern walls. On 14 February, Cai Xi shot down 200 Puzi and over 30 horses using a mounted crossbow from the walls. By 28 February, most of Cai Xi's followers had perished, and he himself had been wounded several times by arrows and stones. The Nanzhao commander, Yang Sijin, penetrated the inner city. Cai Xi tried to escape by boat, but it capsized midstream, drowning him. The 400 remaining defenders wanted to flee as well, but could not find any boats, so they chose to make a last stand at the eastern gate. Ambushing a group of Nanzhao cavalry, they killed over 2,000 Nanzhao troops and 300 horses before Yang sent reinforcements from the inner city. After taking Songping, Nanzhao laid siege to Junzhou (modern Haiphong). A Nanzhao and rebel fleet of 4,000 men led by a native chieftain named Zhu Daogu (朱道古) was attacked by a local commander, who rammed their vessels and sank 30 boats, drowning them. In total, the invasion destroyed Chinese armies in Annan numbering over 150,000. Although initially welcomed by the locals in ousting Tang control, Nanzhao turned on them, ravaging the local population and countryside. Both Chinese and Vietnamese sources note that the Annanese locals fled to the mountains to avoid destruction.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn A government-in-exile for the protectorate was established in Haimen (near modern-day Hạ Long).Template:Sfn Ten thousand soldiers from Shandong and all other armies of the Tang empire were called and concentrating at Halong Bay for reconquering Annan. A supply fleet of 1,000 ships from Fujian was organized.Template:Sfn

Tang counterattack

The Tang launched a counterattack in 864 under Gao Pian, a general who had made his reputation fighting the Türks and the Tanguts in the north. In September 865, Gao's 5,000 troops surprised a Nanzhao army of 50,000 while they were collecting rice from the villages and routed them. Gao captured large quantities of rice, which he used to feed his army.Template:Sfn A jealous governor, Li Weizhou, accused Gao of stalling to meet the enemy, and reported him to the throne. The court sent another general named Wang Yanqian to replace Gao. In the meantime, Gao had been reinforced by 7,000 men who arrived overland under the command of Wei Zhongzai.Template:Sfn In early 866, Gao's 12,000 men defeated a fresh Nanzhao army and chased them back to the mountains. He then laid siege to Songping but had to leave command due to the arrival of Li Weizhou and Wang Yanqian. He was later reinstated after sending his aid, Zeng Gun, who went to the capital as his representative and explained his circumstances.Template:Sfn Gao completed the retaking of Annan in fall 866, executing the enemy general, Duan Qiuqian, and beheading 30,000 of his men.Template:Sfn

According to G. Evans in his final monograph The Tai Original Diaspora, there were probably a quite large number of indigenous Tai-speaking people in Northern Vietnam that threw their support for Nanzhao against the Chinese, and when the Chinese came back in 864, many Tai people were also victims of following Chinese suppression.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref>

Siege of Chengdu

In 869, Shilong attacked Chengdu with the help of the Dongman tribe. The Dongman used to be an ally of the Tang during their wars against the Tibetan Empire in the 790s. Their service was rewarded with mistreatment by Yu Shizhen, the governor of Xizhou, who kidnapped Dongman tribesmen and sold them to other tribes. When the Nanzhao attacked Xizhou, the Dongman tribe opened the gates and welcomed them in.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

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Nanzhao invaded again in the winter of 873-874 and reached within 70 km of Chengdu, seizing Qiongzhou and raiding Qianzhong prefecture (modern Pengshui) before retreating. They attacked again soon after and looted the suburbs of Chengdu for three days but failed to breach its gates and retreated.Template:Sfn

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End of territorial expansion

File:南诏图传中的阿嵯耶观音.jpg
Nanzhao Buddhists and the emperor praying to Auocye Guanyin in the Nanzhao tuzhuan (899)

In 875, Gao Pian was appointed by the Tang to lead defenses against Nanzhao. He ordered all the refugees in Chengdu to return home. Gao led a force of 5,000 and chased the remaining Nanzhao troops to the Dadu River where he defeated them in a decisive battle, captured their armored horses, and executed 50 tribal leaders. He proposed to the court an invasion of Nanzhao with 60,000 troops. His proposal was rejected.Template:Sfn Nanzhao forces were driven from the Bozhou region, modern Guizhou, in 877 by a local military force organized by the Yang family from Shanxi.Template:Sfn This effectively ended Nanzhao's expansionist campaigns. Shilong died in 877.Template:Sfn

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Decline

File:南诏中兴画卷-舜化贞.jpg
Shunhuazhen (r. 897-902) from the Nanzhao Tuzhuan (899)

Shilong's successor, Longshun, entered negotiations with the Tang for a marriage alliance, which was agreed to in 880. The marriage alliance never came to fruition owing to the Huang Chao rebellion. By the end of 880 the rebels had taken Luoyang and seized the Tong Pass. Longshun did not give up on the marriage however. In 883 he sent a delegation to Chengdu to fetch the Princess of Anhua. They brought with them one hundred rugs and carpets as betrothal gifts. The Nanzhao delegation was detained for two years due to a dispute in ceremony and failed to bring back the princess. In 897 Longshun was murdered by one of his own ministers. His successor, Shunhua, sent envoys to the Tang requesting restoration of friendly relations, but by this time the Tang emperor was merely a puppet figurehead of more powerful military governors. No response returned.Template:Sfn The Nanzhao tuzhuan scroll painting was commissioned by Nanzhao's officials to answer Shunhua's question of how Buddhism entered Nanzhao. The scroll painting's narrative ends with Longshun worshiping a golden statue of Acuoye Guanyin. The scroll identifies the ruler as "Maharaja, Earth Wheel King, danbi qianjian, Who Invites The Four Directions to Become One Family, the Piaoxin Meng Longhao". "Maharaja, Earth Wheel King" refers to Buddhist rulership, "Piaoxin" means ruler of the Pyu city-states, and the Four Directions refer to the four seas of classical Chinese texts. The scroll depicts Longshun undergoing abhiseka (consecration), which typically involved being sprinkled with water from a basin, stating that the event occurred in 897.Template:Sfn

In 902, the dynasty came to a bloody end when the chief minister (buxie), Zheng Maisi, murdered the royal family and usurped the throne, renaming it to Dachanghe (大長和, 902–928). In 928, a White Mywa noble, Yang Ganzhen (Jianchuan Jiedushi), aided the chief minister, Zhao Shanzheng, in overthrowing the Zheng family and establishing Datianxing (大天興, 928–929). The new regime lasted only a year before Zhao was killed by Yang, who created Dayining (大義寧, 929–937). Finally Duan Siping seized power in 937 and established the Dali Kingdom.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

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Military

File:大理國梵像卷王圖.jpg
Section of Zhang Shengwen's Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings. Bare-footed warriors, possibly the Luojuzi on the right.

Nanzhao had an elite vanguard unit called the Luojuzi, which means tiger sons, that served as full-time soldiers. For every hundred soldiers, the strongest one was chosen for service in the Luojuzi. They were outfitted with red helmets, leather armour, and bronze shields, but went barefoot. Only wounds to the front were allowed and if they suffered any wounds to their back, they were executed. The commander of a hundred Luojuzi was called Luojuzuo. The king's personal guards, known as the Zhunu Quju, were recruited from the Luojuzi.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> "Quju" is a type of belt. Other types of Quju are known, such as Golden Quju. "Zhunu" in Chinese means "red crossbow".<ref>https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=410939&Type=bkdzb&Preview=false</ref><ref>https://m.guoxuedashi.net/minzu/8463de/</ref>

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Government

Nanzhao society was separated into two distinct castes: the administrative White Mywa living in western Yunnan, and the militaristic Black Mywa in eastern Yunnan. The rulers of Nanzhao were from the Mengshe tribe of the Black Mywa. Nanzhao modelled its government on the Tang dynasty with ministries (nine instead of six) and imperial examinations. However the system of governance and rule in Nanzhao was essentially feudal.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Nanzhao's mode of governance has been described as combining Sinitic bureaucracy with Southeast Asian-style alliances of allegiance with local leaders.Template:Sfn Sons of the Nanzhao aristocracy visited the Tang capital, Chang'an, to receive a Chinese education.<ref name = "knowledge"/> Young men in Nanzhao also visited Chengdu for their education, even during times when the two states were in military conflict.Template:Sfn Chinese influence on Nanzhao can be seen in the 766 Dehua Stele, which the Nanzhao elite used to depict their state as Sinitic following classical Chinese tradition. Confucian influence declined during the reign of Shilong (r. 859-77) when he proclaimed himself emperor and reoriented Nanzhao around Buddhism as the ruling ideology and religion.Template:Sfn

Sources that believe Nanzhao was a Yi dominated society also traditionally hold it to be a slave society because of how central the institution was to Yi culture. The prevalence of the slave culture was so great that sometimes children were named after the quality and quantity of slaves they owned or their parents wished to own. For example: Lurbbu (many slaves), Lurda (strong slaves), Lurshy (commander of slaves), Lurnji (origin of slaves), Lurpo (slave lord), Lurha, (hundred slaves), Jjinu (lots of slaves).<ref name = "perspectives 2">Template:Cite web</ref>

File:The Shanhua Tablet.jpg
A poem written in Square Bai script on the Shanhua tablet (山花碑), 15th c.
File:Armor, Yi people, Sichuan province, China, painted hide, wood, leather - Peabody Museum, Harvard University - DSC06035.jpg
Armour of the Yi people, made of leather, wood, and hide, Qing dynasty

Language

Extant sources from Nanzhao and the later Dali Kingdom show that the ruling elite used Chinese script.Template:Sfn Scriptures from Nanzhao unearthed in the 1950s show that it was written in the Bai language but Nanzhao does not seem to have ever attempted to standardize or popularize the script.Template:Sfn

The Nanzhao rulers use what has been described as a father-son patronymic naming system found in Yi culture and Tibeto-Burman traditions.Template:Sfn According to the popular conception of the Yi patronymic naming system, the last character of the father's name transfers to become the first character of the son's name. The last character of the son's name is then used as the first character of the grandson's name. However this is not strictly a name per se but rather a shortening of the genealogical system which links the father and son across generations. A complete Yi name is composed of the clan name, the branch clan name, the father's name, and the person's own name (ex. Aho Bbujji Jjiha Lomusse). Aho is the name of a tribe, Bbuji is the name of a clan, Jjiha is the father's name, and Lomusse is a personal name. The name therefore means Lomusse the son of Jjiha of the Bbujji clan of the Aho tribe. Within the clan he would just be called Lomusse and within the tribe he would be called Jjiha Lomusse. Yi names use the suffixes -sse and -mo to express maleness and femaleness respectively. When the genealogy of a person is recited, only the father-son linkage is used to make it easier: Aho Ddezze—Ddezze Zuluo—Zuluo Jjiha—Jjiha Lomusse—Lomu Shuogge. This caused the assumption that the Yi practiced a father-son linkage system when it was actually a traditional genealogical recitation pattern.<ref name = "perspectives 2"/>

The names of Nanzhao rulers have been transcribed according to this system with the first character representing the father's name:Template:Sfn

  • (Xi)nuluo
  • (Luo)sheng
  • (Sheng)luopi
  • (Pi)luoge
  • (Ge)luofeng
  • (Feng)jiayi
  • (Yi)mouxun
  • (Xun)gequan
  • (Quan)fengyou – sought to imitate Chinese practices and only went by Fengyou; broke tradition and named his son ShilongTemplate:Sfn
  • Shilong
  • (Long)shun
  • (Shun)huazhen

Leading families around the Nanzhao capital adopted Chinese surnames such as Yang, Li, Zhao, Dong, and claimed Han Chinese ancestry; however, the rulers instead presented themselves as Ailao descendants from Yongchang.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ethnicity

File:大理國描工張勝溫畫梵像-第103開-南詔歷代國王禮佛圖.png
The Nanzhao emperors performing Buddhist rites, Dali Kingdom, 12th century

Bai and Yi

The ethnicity of Nanzhao's ruling elite is not clear. Both the Yi people and Bai people in modern Yunnan claim descent from Nanzhao's rulers.

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In Weishan Yi and Hui Autonomous County, the Yi people claim direct descent from Xinuluo, the founder of Mengshe (Nanzhao).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

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The Bai people also trace their ancestry to Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom, but records from those kingdoms do not mention Bai.Template:Sfn "Bai barbarians" or "Bo people" were mentioned during the Tang dynasty and it is suspected that they might be the same name using different transcriptions; Bai and Bo were pronounced Baek and Bwok in the Tang period. The name Bo was first cited in the Lüshi Chunqiu (c. 241 and 238 BC) and appeared again in the Records of the Grand Historian (begun in 104 BC).Template:Sfn The earliest references to "Bai people", or the "Bo", in connection to the people of Yunnan are from the Yuan dynasty. A Bai script using Chinese characters was mentioned during the Ming dynasty.Template:Sfn Scriptures dated to the Nanzhao period used the Bai language.Template:Sfn According to Stevan Harrell, while the ethnic identity of Nanzhao's ruling elite is still disputed, the subsequent Yang and Duan dynasties were both definitely Bai.Template:Sfn

Forced migrations

File:Yimouxun Shizhongshan Grottoes Jianchuan.jpg
Carving of Yimouxun (r. 779-808) from the Shizhongshan Grottoes in Jianchuan County

The Nanzhao king Yimouxun (r. 779-808) conducted forced resettlement of several ethnicities.

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Bamar

Nanzhao's invasions of the Pyu city-states brought with them the Bamar people (Burmese people), who originally lived in present-day Qinghai and Gansu. The Bamar would form the Pagan Kingdom in medieval Myanmar.<ref name=ehm-236>Moore 2007: 236</ref><ref name=geh-3>Harvey 1925: 3</ref><ref name=degh-11>Hall 1960: 11</ref> In 849, a fortified settlement was established along the Irrawaddy River, possibly to help Nanzhao pacify the area. It was situated at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin tributary to the west of an irrigated rice plain.Template:Sfn

According to Burmese chronicles, after the Nanzhao invasions, a semi-mythical warrior-king named Pyusawhti arose. He was a giant and an excellent archer who came to Pagan and defeated a great bird, a great boar, a great tiger, and a flying squirrel. Legendary accounts say he was born from the union of a prince of the sun and a dragon egg or that he was a scion of the Shakya lineage of Tagaung. It is speculated that he was connected to the ruling dynasty of Nanzhao in some way due to practicing the same naming system. Pyusawhti and his descendants for seven generations used the same patronymic naming tradition that the Nanzhao kings practiced: the last part of a father's name is used as the first part of the son's name.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is also said that Pyusawhti achieved victory over the Chinese, which likely refers to Nanzhao defeating the Tang dynasty in a battle that Pyusawhti may have participated in.<ref name=geh-308>Harvey 1925: 308</ref>

Religion

File:Juyingchi.JPG
The Three Pagodas, built by King Quan Fengyou (劝丰佑) of Nanzhao
File:Yi Bimoism symbol.svg
Modern symbol for Bimoism

Benzhuism

Almost nothing is known about pre-Buddhist religion in Nanzhao. According to Yuan dynasty sources, the Bai people practiced an indigenous religion called Benzhuism that worshiped local lords and deities. The Benzhu lords are spirits of people that died under special circumstances and are not hierarchically organized. Archaeological findings in Yunnan suggest that animal and human sacrifices were offered to the Benzhu lords around a metal pillar with the aid of bronze drums in return for wealth and health. The use of iron pillars for rituals seems to have been retained into the Dali Kingdom. The Nanzhao tuzhuan shows offerings to heaven occurring around one.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Bai people have female shamans and share a worship of white stones similar to the Qiang people.<ref name="culturalchina">Cultural China, The Benzhu religion of the Bai. Template:Webarchive</ref>Template:Sfn

Bimoism

Bimoism is the ethnic religion of the Yi people. The religion is named after the Shaman-priests known as bimo, which means 'master of scriptures',<ref name ="psalm">Template:Cite journal</ref> who officiate at births, funerals, weddings and holidays.<ref name="SEA">Template:Cite book</ref> One can become bimo by patrilinial descent after a time of apprenticeship or formally acknowledging an old bimo as the teacher.<ref name="bimo">Template:Cite web</ref> A lesser priest known as suni is elected, but bimo are more revered and can read Yi scripts while suni cannot. Both can perform rituals, but only bimo can perform rituals linked to death. For most cases, suni only perform some exorcism to cure diseases. Generally, suni can only be from humble civil birth while bimo can be of both aristocratic and humble families.<ref name="obvious"/>

The Yi worshiped and deified their ancestors similar to the Chinese folk religion, and also worshiped gods of nature: fire, hills, trees, rocks, water, earth, sky, wind and forests.<ref name="SEA"/> Bimoists also worship dragons, believed to be protectors from bad spirits that cause illness, poor harvests and other misfortunes. Bimoists believe in multiple souls. At death, one soul remains to watch the grave while the other is eventually reincarnated into some living form. After someone dies they sacrifice a pig or sheep at the doorway to maintain relationship with the deceased spirit.<ref name ="obvious">Template:Cite web</ref>

Buddhism

File:Extract of the Nanzhao Tujuan scroll.jpg
Extract of Nanzhao Tujuan scroll - the Nanzhao Buddhists are depicted as light skinned whereas the non-Buddhists are depicted as rebellious short brown people

Buddhism practiced in Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom was known as Azhali (Acharya), founded around 821-824 by a monk from India called Li Xian Maishun. More monks from India arrived in 825 and 828 and built a temple in Heqing.<ref>Howard, Angela F. "The Dhāraṇī pillar of Kunming, Yunnan: A legacy of esoteric Buddhism and burial rites of the Bai people in the kingdom of Dali, 937–1253", Artibus Asiae 57, 1997, pp. 33-72 (see pp. 43–44).</ref> In 839, an acharya named Candragupta entered Nanzhao. Quanfengyou appointed him as a state mentor and married his sister Yueying to Candragupta. It was said that he meditated in a thatched cottage of Fengding Mountain in the east of Heqing, and became an "enlightened God." He established an altar to propagate tantric doctrines in Changdong Mountain of Tengchong. Candragupta continued to propagate tantric doctrines, translated the tantric scripture The Rites of the Great Consecration, and engaged in water conservancy projects. He left for his homeland later on and possibly went to Tibet to propagate his teachings. When he returned to Nanzhao, he built Wuwei Temple.<ref>India China Encyclopedia Vol. 1 (2014), p. 256</ref>

In 851, an inscription in Jianchuan dedicated images to Maitreya and Amitabha.Template:Sfn The Nanzhao king Quanfengyou commissioned Chinese architects from the Tang dynasty to build the Three Pagodas.Template:Sfn The last king of Nanzhao established Buddhism as the official state religion.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the Nanzhao Tushu juan, the Nanzhao Buddhist elite are depicted with light skin whereas the people who oppose Buddhism are depicted as short and dark skinned.Template:Sfn The 899 Nanzhao tuzhuan gives depicts and recounts how the Acuoye Guanyin helped found Nanzhao.Template:Sfn

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Azhali is considered a sect of Tantrism or esoteric Buddhism, which continued to be practiced in Nanzhao's successor states, the Changhe (903-27), Tianxing (927-28), Yining (928-37), and Dali kingdoms.Template:Sfn Acharya itself means guru or teacher in Sanskrit. According to Azhali practices among the Bai people, acharyas were allowed to marry and have children. The position of acharya was hereditary. The acharyas became state mentors in Nanzhao and held great influence until the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, during which the acharyas called upon various peoples to resist the Mongol rulers and later the Chinese during the Ming conquest of Yunnan. Zhu Yuanzhang banned the dissemination of Azhali Buddhism for a time before setting up an office to administer the religion.<ref>India China Encyclopedia Vol. 1 (2014), p. 151</ref>

The area had a strong connection with Tantric Buddhism, which has survived to this day<ref>Megan Bryson, "Baijie and the Bai: Gender and Ethnic Religion in Dali, Yunnan", Asian Ethnology 72, 2013, pp. 3-31</ref> at Jianchuan and neighboring areas. The worship of Guanyin and Mahākāla is very different from other forms of Chinese Buddhism.<ref>Megan Bryson, "Mahākāla worship in the Dali kingdom (937-1253) – A study and translation of the Dahei tianshen daochang yi", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 35, 2012, pp. 3-69</ref> Nanzhao likely had strong religious connections with the Pagan Kingdom in what is today Myanmar, as well as Tibet and Bengal (see Pala Empire).<ref>Thant Myint-U, Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia, Part 3</ref>

Family tree of monarchs

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References

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Bibliography

Further reading

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