Samanid Empire

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Samanid Empire
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Extent of the Samanid realm at the death of Nasr II in 943

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| label122 = Antipodes | data122=

| label123 = Date format | data123=


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              | Calling code
              | Calling code
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  }}

| data126=

| label127= ISO 3166 code | data127= {{#switch: 

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| label128= Internet TLD | data128=

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|

Website
{{{official_website}}}
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| {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=|size=|alt=|title=Location of Samanid Empire }}{{#if:|

}} 

 }}

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             |Template:Infobox country/formernext

}}

| label135 = Today part of | data135 =

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|

    {{#if:|
  1. }}{{#if:|
  2. }}{{#if:|
  3. }}{{#if:|
  4. }}{{#if:|
  5. }}{{#if:|
  6. }}{{#if:|
  7. }}{{#if:|
  8. }}

}}

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|

    {{#if:|
  1. }}{{#if:|
  2. }}{{#if:|
  3. }}{{#if:|
  4. }}{{#if:|
  5. }}{{#if:|
  6. }}{{#if:|
  7. }}{{#if:|
  8. }}

}} | data138 = {{#if:|

{{{footnotes}}}{{#if:|
{{{footnotes2}}}}}

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| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | module | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }} Template:History of Iran The Samanid Empire (Template:Langx)Template:Efn was a Persianate Sunni Muslim empire, ruled by a dynasty of Iranian dehqan origin, from 819 to 999. The empire was centred in Khorasan and Transoxiana, at its greatest extent included northeastern Iran and Central Asia.

Four brothers: Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas, founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territories under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani, united the Samanids under his rule, thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of the Abbasids. However, by 945, the government had fallen under the de facto control of the Turkic military slave faction, and the Samanid family's authority had become purely symbolic.

The Samanid Empire is part of the Iranian Intermezzo, which saw the creation of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the Islamic world. This later contributed to the formation of the Turko-Persian culture.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Samanids were patrons of the arts, leading to advancements in science and literature, and as a result attracted scholars such as Rudaki, Ferdowsi, and Avicenna. Under Samanid rule, Bukhara, rivalled Baghdad in its glory.Template:Sfn Scholars note that the Samanids did more to revive Persian language and culture than did the Buyids or the Saffarids, all the while continuing to use Arabic for science and religion. They considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In a famous edict, the Samanids declare that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."Template:Sfn

History

Origins

The Samanid dynasty was founded by Saman Khuda, his descendants became rulers of the Samanid Empire. He was a dehqan of Iranian origin from the village of Saman in Balkh province,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn in present-day northern Afghanistan.Template:Sfn The earliest appearance of the Samanid family appears to be in Greater Khorasan rather than Transoxiana.Template:Sfn In some sources, the Samanids claimed to be descended from the House of Mihran of Bahram Chobin.Template:Efn This claim is further supported by a geographical treatise from the second half of the 8th century, compiled by five choirs (Togonians) and translated into the Tibetan language. In this chronicle, it is mentioned that the descendants of Bahram Chobin migrated to Balkh and settled there. According to Gumilev, they were considered the ancestors of the Samanids. This provides evidence of the claim even before the Samanid Empire existed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It has been claimed that the House of Saman belonged to the Oghuz Turks, although the veracity is unlikely.Template:Sfn Originally a Zoroastrian, Saman Khuda converted to Islam during the governorship of Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri in Khorasan, and named his oldest son as Asad ibn Saman in the governor's honour.Template:Sfn In 819, the governor of Greater Khorasan, Ghassan ibn Abbad, rewarded the four sons of Asad ibn Saman for their aid against the rebel Rafi ibn al-Layth. Nuh ibn Asad received Samarkand; Ahmad ibn Asad received Farghana; Yahya ibn Asad received Tashkent, and Ilyas ibn Asad received Herat.Template:Sfn

Rise

The Samanids in Herat (819–857)

Template:Further Ilyas died in 856, and his son Ibrahim ibn Ilyas became his successor. The Tahirid governor of Khorasan, Muhammad ibn Tahir, subsequently appointed him as the commander of his army, and sent him on an expedition against the Saffarid ruler Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar in Sistan. After facing defeat in battle near Pushang in 857, he fled to Nishapur, only to be captured by Ya'qub al-Saffar and sent to Sistan as a hostage.Template:Sfn

The Samanid dynasty in Transoxiana (819–892)

Template:See also

File:Transoxiana 8th century.svg
Map of Khorasan and Transoxiana.

In 839/40, Nuh seized Isfijab from the nomadic pagan Turks living in the steppe. Consequently, he had a wall constructed around the city to protect it from their attacks. He died in 841/2—his two brothers Yahya and Ahmad, were then appointed as the joint rulers of the city by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan.Template:Sfn After Yahya died in 855, Ahmad took control over Châch, thus becoming the ruler of most of Transoxiana. He died in 864/5; his son Nasr I received Farghana and Samarkand, while his other son Ya'qub received Châch (areas around modern Tashkent/Chachkent).Template:Sfn

Meanwhile, the Tahirids' authority had significantly weakened after suffering several defeats to Saffarid ruler Ya'qub al-Saffar. Hence, causing the Tahirids to lose their grip over the Samanids, who became more or less independent. Nasr I, used this opportunity to strengthen his authority by sending his brother Ismail to Bukhara, which was in an unstable condition after suffering from raids by the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarazm. When Ismail reached the city, he was warmly received by its inhabitants, who saw him as one who could restore order.Template:Sfn

After not so long, disagreement over where to distribute tax money caused a conflict between the brothers. Ismail was eventually victorious in the dynastic struggle and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Abbasid caliphs continued to recognize him as the rightful ruler.Template:Sfn Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that would continue until his death in August 892.Template:Sfn

Final unification and height of power (892–907)

File:13 Buhara Mavzolej Ismaila Samanija (2).JPG
Picture of the Samanid Mausoleum, the burial site of Ismail Samani.

Following Nasr's death, Ismail moved the capital of the Samanid dynasty from Samarkand to Bukhara.Template:Sfn A few months later the Saffarid emir, Ya'qub al-Saffar, also died and was succeeded by his brother Amr ibn al-Layth, who saw himself as the heir of the Saffarids.Template:Sfn In the spring of 900, Amr clashed with Ismail near Balkh, but was defeated and taken into captivity.Template:Sfn Ismail thereafter sent him to Baghdad, where he was executed.Template:Sfn Ismail was thereafter recognized as the ruler of all of Khorasan and Transoxiana by the caliph.Template:Sfn Furthermore, he also received the investiture over Tabaristan, Ray and Isfahan.Template:Sfn It was also during this period that the Afrighid dynasty was forced into submission.Template:Sfn

Before Ismail Samani's major victory against the Saffarids, he had made various expeditions in Transoxiana; in 892, he put an end to the Principality of Ushrusana by seizing all of its lands. During the same period, he put an end to the Bukhar Khudas in Bukhara. In 893, Ismail Samani invaded the territories of the Karluk Turks, taking Talas and converting the Nestorian church there into a mosque.<ref>Renee Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia, Transl. Naomi Walford, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 142.</ref><ref>"Samanids", C. E. Bosworth, The Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VIII, Ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and G. Lecomte, (E.J. Brill, 1995), 1026.</ref> The same year, he conducted a campaign to gather slaves, taking ten to fifteen thousand captives.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Samanid slave trade was the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, forming the base of economy of the state.<ref>Gangler, A., Gaube, H., Petruccioli, A. (2004). Bukhara, the Eastern Dome of Islam: Urban Development, Urban Space, Architecture and Population. Tyskland: Ed. Axel Menges. p. 39</ref>

In 900, Ismail sent an army under Muhammad ibn Harun al-Sarakhsi against Muhammad ibn Zayd, the Zaydi ruler of Tabaristan and Gorgan. The invasion was successful; Muhammad ibn Zayd was killed and Tabaristan was conquered by the Samanids. However, Muhammad ibn Harun shortly revolted, forcing Ismail himself to invade the region the following year. Muhammad ibn Harun thereafter fled to Daylam, while Ismail reconquered Tabaristan and Gorgan.Template:Sfn In 901, Amr Saffari was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids, which reduced the Saffarid dynasty to a minor tributary in Sistan.Template:Sfn It was during this period that the Samanids were at their height of power, ruling as far as Qazvin in the west<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and Peshawar in the east.

Ismail is known in history as a competent general and a strong ruler; many stories about him are written in Arabic and Persian sources. Furthermore, because of his campaigns in the north, his empire was so safe from enemy incursions that the defences of Bukhara and Samarkand went unused. However, this later had consequences; at the end of the dynasty, the walls—earlier strong, but now falling apart—were greatly missed by the Samanids, who were constantly under attack by the Karakhanids and other enemies.Template:Sfn

Ismail died in November 907, and was succeeded by his son Ahmad Samani (r. 907–914).

Intermediate period (907–961)

Template:Continental Asia in 900 CE Not long after his accession, Ahmad invaded Sistan; by 911, Sistan was under complete Samanid control, and Ahmad's cousin Abu Salih Mansur was appointed as its governor. Meanwhile, an Alid named Hasan al-Utrush was slowly re-establishing Zaydi over Tabaristan. In 913, Ahmad sent an army under Muhammad ibn Sa'luk to deal with him. Although the Samanid army was much larger, Hasan managed to emerge victorious. Ahmad, before he could plan another expedition to Tabaristan, was the following year murdered by some of his slaves in a tent near Bukhara.Template:Sfn During his reign, Ahmad is also said to have replaced the language of the court from Persian to Arabic, which made him unpopular among his subjects, and forced him to change it back to Persian. After Ahmad's death, his eight-year-old son Nasr II (r. 914–943) succeeded him.

File:NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg
Coin of Nasr II, minted in Nishapur (933/4).

Due to Nasr's youth, his prime minister Abu 'Abd-Allah al-Jaihani took care over most of the state affairs. Jaihani was not only an experienced administrator, but also a prominent geographer and greatly educated man. Almost right after Nasr II had ascended the throne, several revolts erupted, the most dangerous one being under his paternal grand-uncle, Ishaq ibn Ahmad, who seized Samarkand and began minting coins there, while his son Abu Salih Mansur seized Nishapur and several cities in Khorasan. Ishaq was eventually defeated and captured, while Abu Salih Mansur died of natural causes in 915.Template:Sfn Some time later Nasr II once again had to deal with rebels; in 919, the governor of Khorasan, Husayn ibn Ali Marvarrudhi, rebelled against Samanid authority. Nasr responded by sending an army under Ahmad ibn Sahl to suppress the rebellion, which the latter managed to accomplish. After a few weeks, however, Ahmad shortly rebelled himself at Nishapur, made incursions into Gorgan, and then fortified himself in Merv to avoid a Samanid counter-attack. Nevertheless, the Samanid general Hamuya ibn Ali managed to lure Ahmad out of Merv, and defeated him in a battle at Marw al-Rudh; he was captured and imprisoned in Bukhara, where he remained until his death in 920.

At considerable expense, Nasr II b. Ahmad erected a new palace for himself and for his officials in Bukhara, in the ancient Rigistan region.Template:Sfn In the west, Nasr II clashed several times with Daylamite and Gilite rulers. In 921, the Zaydids under the Gilite ruler Lili ibn al-Nu'man invaded Khorasan, but were defeated by the Simjurid general Simjur al-Dawati. Later in 930, a Dailamite military leader, Makan ibn Kaki, seized Tabaristan and Gurgan, and even took possession of Nishapur in western Khorasan. He was, however, forced to withdraw back to Tabaristan one year later, due to the threat that Samanids posed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Makan then returned to Tabaristan, where he was defeated by the Ziyarid ruler Mardavij, who managed to conquer the region.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 935, Nasr II re-established Samanid control in Gurgan and made Mardavij's successor Vushmgir his vassal. However, in 939 he declared independence, but was defeated the following year at Iskhabad.

In 943 several Samanid army officers, angry at Nasr's support of Isma'ili missionaries, formed a conspiracy to murder him. Nasr's son Nuh I, however, learned of the conspiracy. He went to a banquet designed to organize the plot and had the head of their leader cut off. To appease the other officers, he promised to stop the Isma'ili missionaries from continuing their activities. He then convinced his father to abdicate, who died of tuberculosis after a few months.<ref>A new text on Ismailism at the Samanid court, Patricia Crone and Luke Treadwell, Texts, documents, and artefacts:Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards, ed. Chase F. Robinson, (Brill, 2003), 46.</ref>

Right when Nuh I ascended the throne, a revolt erupted in Khwarazm, which he managed to suppress. Later in 945, he had to deal with the Muhtajid ruler Abu 'Ali Chaghani, who refused to relinquish his post as governor of Khorasan to Ibrahim ibn Simjur. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then rebelled, and was joined by several prominent figures such as Abu Mansur Muhammad, whom he appointed as his commander-in-chief. In 947, he installed Nuh's uncle Ibrahim ibn Ahmad as amir in Bukhara. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then returned to his domains in Chaghaniyan. Ibrahim, however, was unpopular with the people of Bukhara, and Nuh soon retaliated by retaking the city and blinding Ibrahim and two brothers.

When Abu Ali Chaghani received the news of the re-capture of Bukhara, he once again marched towards it, but was defeated by an army sent by Nuh and withdrew back to Chaghaniyan. After some time, he left the region and tried to obtain support from other Samanid vassals. Meanwhile, Nuh had Chaghaniyan ravagedTemplate:Sfn and its capital sacked.Template:Sfn Another battle shortly ensued between Abu 'Ali Chaghani and a Samanid army in Tukharistan, which resulted in a Samanid victory. Fortunately for Abu Ali Chaghani, he managed to secure the support of other Samanid vassals, such as the rulers of Khuttal, and the Kumiji mountain people, but in the end made peace with Nuh, who allowed him to keep Chaghaniyan in return for sending his son Abu'l Muzaffar Abdallah as hostage to Bukhara.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

File:Iran in 10th century AD.png
Iran in the mid-10th century.

By 945, the Turkic military slave faction (who were formerly recruited by the Samanid rulers in positions of governance) were fully in charge of the government. By this time, the Samanid family only held nominal power; similar to how the Buyids held de facto power over the Abbasid Caliphate around the same time.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Alp Tigin, nominal vassal of the Samanids, conquered Ghazna in 962 from the Lawik dynasty.<ref>Gardīzī, ed. Ḥabībī, pp. 161–62; Jūzjānī, Ṭabaqāt, I, pp. 226–27; Neẓām-al-Molk, pp. 142–58; Šabānkāraʾī, pp. 29–34;</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Full citation needed The fifth of these commanders was Sebüktigin, who governed Ḡazna for twenty years till 387 AH/997 CE with the title (as it appears from his tomb inscriptionTemplate:SfnTemplate:Full citation needed) of al-ḥājeb al-ajall (most noble commander). He would later be the founder of an independent dynasty based in Ghazna, following the decline of the Samanid Empire in the 990s.<ref>"GHAZNAVIDS" Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 August 2014</ref>

Decline and fall (961–999)

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Perso-Islamic world 998 AD.png
The Samanids in 998 shortly before its fall in 999 AD.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The power of the Samanids began to crumble in the latter half of the 10th century. In 962, one of the ghulams, Alp Tigin, commander of the army in Khorasan, seized Ghazna and established himself there.<ref name="sinor">Template:Citation</ref> His successors, however, including Sabuktigin, continued to rule as Samanid "governors". With the weakened Samanids facing rising challenges from the Karakhanids for control of Transoxiana, Sabuktigin later took control of all the provinces south of the Oxus and established the Ghaznavid Empire.Template:Citation needed

In 992, a Karakhanid, Harun Bughra Khan, grandson of the paramount tribal chief of the Karluk confederation Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, captured Bukhara, the Samanid capital.<ref name="UNESCO">Template:Citation</ref> Harun died shortly afterwards, however, and the Samanids returned to Bukhara. In 999, Nasr b. Ali, a nephew of Harun, returned and took possession of Bukhara, meeting little resistance. The Samanid domains were split up between the Ghaznavids, who gained Khorasan, and the Karakhanids, who received Transoxiana; the Oxus River thus became the boundary between the two rival empires.<ref name="Bos106">Template:Cite book</ref>

Isma'il Muntasir's attempt to resurrect the Samanid state (1000–1005)

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Isma'il Muntasir was the youngest son of Nuh II—he was imprisoned by the Karakhanids after their conquest of Bukhara in 999. Some time later, Isma'il managed to escape to Khwarazm, where he gained support. Driving the Karakhanids out of Bukhara, he then moved on to and captured Samarkand. The approach of the Karakhanid army, however, forced Isma'il to give up all of his possessions, following which he travelled to Khorasan, where he captured Nishapur. Mahmud's army, however, made its way to the region, and Isma'il decided it necessary to flee again.

In 1003 Isma'il came back to Transoxiana, where he requested and received assistance from the Oghuz Turks of the Zarafshan valley. They defeated the Karakhanids in several battles, even when Nasr Khan was involved. For various reasons, however, Isma'il came to feel that he could not rely on the Oghuz to restore him, so he went back to Khorasan. He tried to gain Mahmud's support for a campaign to restore the Samanid state, but failed. Some time afterwards, he returned to the Zarafshan valley, where he gained the support of the Oghuz and others. A Karakhanid army was defeated in May 1004, but subsequently the Oghuz deserted Isma'il during another battle, and his army fell apart.

Fleeing to Khorasan yet again, Isma'il attempted to reenter Transoxiana in the end of 1004. The Karakhanids stopped this and Isma'il was nearly killed. Following this, he sought the hospitality of an Arab tribe near Merv. Their chief, however, killed Isma'il in 1005. His death marked the defeat of the last attempt to restore the Samanid state. Descendants of the Samanid family continued to live in Transoxiana where they were well regarded, but their power was relatively broken.

Iranian intermezzo

Along with several other states, the Samanid Empire was part of the Iranian Intermezzo, or "Persian renaissance". This period has been described as having a key importance in the formation of the Islamic civilization, both politically and culturally. In political terms, it saw an effective break up of the Abbasid power and the rise of several successor states such as the Samanids and Buyids while in cultural terms, it witnessed the rise of new Persian as an administrative and literary language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Culture

Government

File:Mansur I.jpg
Silver medallion of the Samanid ruler Mansur I with bilingual Middle Persian and Arabic minted in Bukhara.
Obverse in Middle Persian: khvarrah apzut shahanshah "the King of Kings has increased the royal splendor"
Reverse in Arabic: la ilaha illa allah wahdahu la sharik lahu muhammad rasul allah al-muti' lillah al-malik al-muzaffar mansur bin nuh "There is no god but Allah, the One, there is no partner to Him, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah, al-Muti' lillah, the victorious king, Mansur son of Nuh.

The system of the Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system,Template:Sfn which in turn was modelled after the Sasanian system.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The ruler of the state was the amir, and the provinces were governed by appointed governors or local vassal rulers.Template:Sfn The administrative, political and economic affairs were administered by the divan, and the Samanid bureaucracy used Arabic in its diplomatic discourses.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The economy was managed by the mustawfi, diplomatic correspondence and important state papers by the diwanal-rasa'il, and the royal guard and military affairs by the sahib al-shurta.Template:Sfn The main responsibility of both governors and local rulers was to collect taxes and support the Samanid ruler with troops if needed. The most important province in the Samanid Empire was Khorasan, which was initially given to a relative of the Samanid ruler or a local Iranian prince (such as the Muhtajids), but was later given to one of his most trusted slaves. The governor of Khorasan was normally the sipah-salar (commander-in-chief).Template:Sfn

Like in the Abbasid Caliphate, Turkic slaves could rise to high office in the Samanid state, which would sometimes give them enough power to nearly make the ruler their puppet.Template:Sfn

Cultural and religious efforts

The Samanids revived Persian culture by patronizing Rudaki,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Bal'ami and Daqiqi.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Samanids determinedly propagated Sunni Islam, and repressed Ismaili Shiism<ref>An Ismaili Heresiography: The "Bab Al-Shaytan" from Abu Tammam's Kitab Al ... By Wilferd Madelung, Paul Ernest Walker, p. 5.</ref> but were more tolerant of Twelver Shiism.Template:Sfn Islamic architecture and Islamo-Persian culture was spread deep into the heartlands of Central Asia by the Samanids. Following the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian in the 9th century, populations under the Samanid empire began accepting Islam in significant numbers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The arabization of the Samanids was clearly minimal compared to the almost entirely arabized Tahirids.Template:Sfn Despite Arabic literature and science flourishing in the Samanid Empire, its distance from Baghdad allowed the Samanids to be a crucial element in the renaissance of New Persian language and culture.Template:Sfn This Persianate culture variant was the first to use a language besides Arabic in Islamic culture.Template:Sfn

Although the Zoroastrian population had previously been suppressed by the Abbasid Caliphate,<ref>Marietta Stepaniants, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Apr. 2002), pp. 166</ref> according to Al-Masudi, the Samanid empireTemplate:Efn<ref name="Arnold1896" /> still had fire-temples that were still being venerated by the present Zoroastrian population.<ref name="Arnold1896">T.W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith, (Archibald Constable & Co, 1896), pp. 179-180 and [1] on pp 161</ref> Despite the fact that the Samanids professed Sunni Islam, however, they were much more tolerant towards its Zoroastrian population than the previous empires.<ref>The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism, eds. M. Stausberg & Y. S.-D. Vevaina, 2015, pp. 112</ref>

Through zealous missionary work as many as 30,000 tents of Turks came to profess Islam and later under the Ghaznavids more than 55,000 under the Hanafi school of thought. The mass conversion of the Turks to Islam eventually led to a growing influence of the Ghaznavids, who would later rule the region.Template:Citation needed

Under Nuh II, a Hanafi work, which was being used to contest Ismailism, was translated into Persian.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Agriculture and trading were the economic bases of the Samanid State. The Samanids heavily engaged in trade with Europe. Thousands of Samanid coins have been found in the Baltic and Scandinavia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Literature

File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Abu'l-'Abbas al-Saffah is proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph (cropped).jpg
Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-period Tarikhnama of Bal'ami (d. 992–997 CE) depicting al-Saffah (r. 750–754) as he receives pledges of allegiance in Kufa. This is the earliest known extant prose book in the Persian language.
File:Balami - Tarikhnama - The arrow of old Wahraz kills Masruq, the Ethiopian King of Yemen (cropped).jpg
Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-period Tarikhnama of Bal'ami, with Persian miniature depicting the arrow of old Wahraz killing Masruq, the Ethiopian king of Yemen.

During the 9th and 10th centuries, there was a large amount of growth in literature, mostly in poetry. It was during the Samanid period that Persian literature appeared in Transoxiana and was formally recognized.Template:Sfn The advancement of an Islamic New Persian literature thus started in Transoxiana and Khorasan instead of Fars, the homeland of the Persians. The best known poets of the Samanid period were Rudaki (d. 941), Daqiqi (d. 977) and Ferdowsi (d. 1020).Template:Sfn

Although Persian was the most-favored language, Arabic continued to enjoy a high status and was still popular among the members of the Samanid family.Template:Sfn For example, al-Tha'alibi wrote an Arabic anthology named Yatimat al-Dahr ("The Unique Pearl"). The fourth section of the anthology included a detailed account of the poets that lived under the Samanids. It also states that the poets of Khwarazm mostly wrote in Arabic.Template:Sfn

The acknowledged founder of Persian classical poetry, and a man of great perception, was Rudaki, who was born in the village of Panjrudak, which is today part of the Panjakent District in Tajikistan.Template:Sfn Rudaki was already becoming popular during his early years, due to his poems, his voice, and his great skill in using the chang (an Iranian instrument similar to the harp). He was shortly invited to the Samanid court, where he stayed almost the rest of his life. Fewer than 2,000 lines of his poetry have survived, but are enough to prove his great poetic skills—he perfected every basic verse form of medieval Persian poetry: mathnawi, qasida, ghazal and ruba'i.Template:Sfn

"Look at the cloud, how it cries like a grieving man

Thunder moans like a lover with a broken heart.
Now and then the sun peeks from behind the clouds
Like a prisoner hiding from the guard." – Rudaki

Another prominent poet was Shahid Balkhi, born in the village of Jakhudanak near Balkh. Not much is known about his life, but he is mentioned as being one of the best poets in the court of Nasr II, and one of the best scholars of the age. He was also a student of Rudaki, and had close relations with him. He died in 936, a few years before Rudaki's death. His death saddened Rudaki, who afterwards wrote an emotional elegy about him.Template:Sfn

Daqiqi, who was a native of Tus, began his career at the court of the Muhtajid ruler Abu'l Muzaffar ibn Muhammad in Chaghaniyan, and was later invited to the Samanid court.Template:Sfn Under the Samanids, a special interest arose in ancient Iranian legends and heroic traditions, thus inspiring Daqiqi to write the Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings"), a long epic poem based on the history of the Iranians. However, by his death in 977, he had only managed to complete a small part of it, which was about the conflict between Gushtasp and Arjasp.Template:Sfn

However, the most prominent poet of that age was Ferdowsi, born in Tus in 940 to a dehqan family. It was during his youth that there was a period of growth under the Samanids. The rapid growth of interest in ancient Iranian history made him continue the work of Daqiqi, completing the Shahnameh in 994, only a few years before the fall of the Samanid Empire. He later completed a second version of the Shahnameh in 1010, which he presented to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud. However, his work was not as appreciated by the Ghaznavids as it had been by the Samanids.Template:Sfn

Population

Under the Samanid Empire, the Zarafshan valley, Kashka Darya and Usrushana were populated by Sogdians; Tukharistan by the Bactrians; Khwarezm by the Khwarazmians; the Ferghana valley by the Ferghanans; southern Khorasan by Khorasanians; and the Pamir mountains and environs by the Saka and other early Iranian peoples. All these groups were of Iranian ethnicity and spoke dialects of Middle Iranian and New Persian. In the words of Negmatov, "they were the basis for the emergence and gradual consolidation of what became an Eastern Persian-Tajik ethnic identity."Template:Sfn

Language

File:Persian notes on Quranic booklets, written by a native of Tūs called Ahmad Khayqānī (905 CE).jpg
Persian notes on Quranic booklets, written by a native of Tus called Ahmad Khayqani in 292 AH (905 CE).
File:کتاب الابنیه عن الحقایق الادویه، برگی از دستنویس محفوظ در کتابخانه ملی اتریش در وین (rot).jpg
A page from a manuscript of "Kitab al-Abniya 'an Haqa'iq al-Adwiya" by Abu Mansur Muwaffaq, Copied by Asadi Tusi in 447 AH (1055 CE).

Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Persianized in originally Khwarazmian and Sogdian areas during Samanid rule.<ref name="NourzhanovBleuer2013">Template:Cite book</ref> The Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like Bactrian and Khwarezmian with only a tiny amount of Sogdian-descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia. This was due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia at the time also included some Persians who later governed the region like the Samanids.Template:Sfn Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.Template:Sfn

Intellectual life

In the 9th and 10th centuries, intellectual life in Transoxiana and Khorasan reached a high level. In the words of N.N. Negmatov, "It was inevitable that the local Samanid dynasty, seeking support among its literate classes, should cultivate and promote local cultural traditions, literacy and literature."Template:Sfn

The main Samanid towns – Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Merv, Nishapur, Khujand, Bunjikath, Hulbuk, Termez and others, became the major cultural centres under the state. Scholars, poets, artists and other men of education from many Muslim countries assembled in the Samanid capital of Bukhara, where a rich soil was created for the prosper of creative thought, thus making it one of the most distinguished cultural centres of the Eastern world. An outstanding library known as Siwān al-Hikma ("Storehouse of Wisdom") was put together in Bukhara, known for its various types of books.Template:Sfn

Arts

Due to extensive excavations at Nishapur, Iran, in the mid-twentieth century, Samanid pottery is well-represented in Islamic art collections around the world. These ceramics are largely made from earthenware and feature either calligraphic inscriptions of Arabic proverbs, or colorful figural decorations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Arabic proverbs often speak to the values of "Adab" culture—hospitality, generosity, and modesty.<ref>Pancaroglu, Oya. "Serving wisdom: The contents of Samanid epigraphic pottery." Studies in Islamic and Later Indian Art from the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University Art Museum (2002): 58-68.</ref>

Legacy

In commending the Samanids, the epic Persian poet Ferdowsi says of them:

کجا آن بزرگان ساسانیان
ز بهرامیان تا به سامانیان

"Where have all the great Sasanians gone?
From the Bahrāmids to the Samanids what has come upon?"

A Bukharan historian writing in 943 stated that Ismail Samani:

was indeed worthy and right for padishahship. He was an intelligent, just, compassionate person, one possessing reason and prescience...he conducted affairs with justice and good ethics. Whoever tyrannized people he would punish...In affairs of state he was always impartial.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The celebrated scholar Nizam al-Mulk, in his famous work Siyasatnama, stated that Ismail Samani:

was extremely just, and his good qualities were many. He had pure faith in God (to Him be power and glory) and he was generous to the poor – to name only one of his notable virtues.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Tajiks and Samanids

Tajik nationalism has been the domain of the government elite. The Tajik regime has been rewriting history and in doing so, redefining its political system.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> And the "drive for 'authenticity" let to rewriting history to foreground the modern Tajiks connection of the 9th-century Samanids. And to portray them as Tajiks for, historical heritage competition with Uzbekistan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tajik nationalist historians have sought to portray, the Samanid empire as the original "Tajik" state with Ismail Samani as its founder. It should be conceded that this claim is occasionally exaggerated and distorted.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Samanids would not have approved of their classification as Tajiks separate from the larger Persian-speaking community.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Samanid rulers

Bukhara Samarkand Ferghana Shash Herat
Saman Khuda
Template:Langx
(A Persian landowner from the village of Saman in Balkh province in northern Afghanistan, he arrived in Merv to the court of the Umayyad governor of Khorasan, Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, under whose influence he became a Muslim and served the governor till his death. He was the founder of the Samanid dynasty)
Asad ibn Saman
Template:Langx
Nuh ibn Asad
Template:Langx
819–841/2 		Ahmad ibn Asad
Template:Langx
819–864/5 		Yahya ibn Asad
Template:Langx
819–855 		Ilyas ibn Asad
Template:Langx
819–856
Ahmad ibn Asad
Template:Langx
819–864/5 		Ibrahim ibn Ilyas
Template:Langx
856–867
Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad
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892–907 		Nasr I
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864–892 		Ya'qub ibn Ahmad
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? 		Saffarids
Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad
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892–907
Ahmad ibn Isma'il
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907–914
Nasr II
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914–943
Nuh I
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943–954
Ibrahim ibn Ahmad
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947
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh I
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954–961
Abu Salih Mansur ibn Nuh I
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961–976
Nuh ibn Mansur
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976–997
Abd al-Aziz
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992
Abu'l-Harith Mansur ibn Nuh II
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997–999
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh II
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999
Isma'il Muntasir ibn Nuh II
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1000 – 1005
?

See also

Notes

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References

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Sources

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Further reading

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