Template:If mobileCanadian cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices of Canada, with regional variances around the country. First Nations and Inuit have practiced their culinary traditions in what is now Canada for at least 15,000 years. The advent of European explorers and settlers, first on the east coast and then throughout the wider territories of New France, British North America and Canada, saw the melding of foreign recipes, cooking techniques, and ingredients with indigenous flora and fauna.<ref name="auto2">Jacobs, H. (2009). Structural Elements in Canadian Cuisine. Cuizine, 2(1), 0–0. https://doi.org/10.7202/039510ar</ref> Modern Canadian cuisine has maintained this dedication to local ingredients and terroir, as exemplified in the naming of specific ingredients based on their locale, such as Malpeque oysters or Alberta beef.<ref name="auto2"/> Accordingly, Canadian cuisine privileges the quality of ingredients and regionality, and may be broadly defined as a national tradition of "creole" culinary practices,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> based on the complex multicultural and geographically diverse nature of both historical and contemporary Canadian society.
Divisions within Canadian cuisine can be traced along regional lines and have a direct connection to the historical immigration patterns of each region or province. The earliest cuisines of Canada are based on Indigenous, English, Scottish and French roots. The traditional cuisines of both French- and English-Canada have evolved from those carried over to North America from France and the British Isles respectively, and from their adaptation to Indigenous customs, labour-intensive and/or mobile lifestyles, and hostile environmental conditions. French Canadian cuisine can also be divided into Québécois cuisine and Acadian cuisine. Regional cuisines have continued to develop with subsequent waves of immigration during the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, such as from Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, South Asia, East Asia, and the Caribbean. There are many culinary practices and dishes that can be either identified as particular to Canada, such as fish and brewis, peameal bacon, pot roast and meatloaf, or sharing an association with countries from which immigrants to Canada carried over their cuisine, such as fish and chips, roast beef, and bannock.
Though certain dishes may be identified as "Canadian" due to the ingredients used or the origin of their inception, an overarching style of Canadian cuisine may be more difficult to define. Some commentators, such as former prime ministerJoe Clark, believe Canadian cuisine to be a collage of dishes from a variety of cultures. Clark has been paraphrased to have noted that "Canada has a cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord."<ref name=smorg>Template:Citation Also published as "Canadian cuisine a smorgasbord of regional flavours"</ref> Canadian food culture writer and author Jennifer Cochrall-King has said that "there is no single definition of Canadian cuisine. It starts with ingredients that spring from the landscape and with traditional dishes steeped in the region's history and culture."<ref name="firstlawcomic.com">Template:Cite web Retrieved 26 April 2022. Fist Law Comic</ref>
While the immense size of Canada, and the diversity of its inhabitants, compounds the difficulty in identifying a monolithic Canadian culinary tradition, Hersch Jacobs acknowledges that the lack of a hegemonic definition does not preclude the existence of Canadian cuisine.<ref name="hj">Template:Citation</ref> Lenore Newman argues that there is a distinctly Canadian creole cuisine, and identifies five key properties that together define Canadian cuisine: its reliance on seasonality, multiculturalism, wild foods, regional dishes, and the privileging of ingredients over recipes.<ref name=LN>Template:Cite book</ref> This adaptation, preparation, and emphasis on specific local ingredients is of particular note, and a common theme in Canadian food is the use of foreign recipes, introduced by immigrants and their descendants, that have been modified for use of local products.<ref name="hj"/> Tourtière, for example, is a Canadian meat pie of French origin that can be cooked with beef, pork or fish.<ref name="backroads.com">Template:Cite web Retrieved 26 April 2022. Back Roads</ref> The sections on regionality and national foods below illustrate this tradition of diversity and emphasis on local elements, such as dulse and lobster in the Maritimes, deer meats in the Northern Territories, salmon and crab in British Columbia, or maple syrup in Central Canada.
Indigenous food may be considered uniquely Canadian, and the influence of Métis culture can be considered to have played a particularly important role in the origin of a distinct Canadian cuisine. Foods such as bannock, moose, deer, bison, pemmican, maple taffy, and Métis stews, such as barley stew, are all either traditional Indigenous foods, or originate from Canada with roots in Indigenous cuisines, and are eaten throughout the country.
There are many foods of foreign origin that are eaten commonly and considered integrated constituents of Canadian cuisine. Pierogies (dumplings of Central and Eastern European origin) are an example, due to the large number of early Ukrainian and Polish immigrants, while the ubiquity of roast beef and Yorkshire pudding are an example of the heavy English influence. As much of Canadian cuisine is coloured by the adaptation and development of dishes brought over by European, and later Asian, settlers, there is a variety of noteworthy Canadian variations on pre-established templated food and drink, with their own nationally defined particularities, such as Canadian Cheddar cheese, whisky, bread, wine, bacon, and pancakes.
In general, much of what is considered to be traditional Canadian cuisine contains strong elements of richness, breads and starches, game meat, and often stews and soups.<ref name="backroads.com"/> Certain culinary traditions in Canada, such as the frying of dough, which developed out of the country's voyaging and frontier culture, have seen to both the creation of distinct national foods and the flourishing of a broader national association with certain types of dishes. In the case of frying dough, for example, particular foods originating from Canada would include beavertails, apple fritters and toutons, whilst foods such as doughnuts, cronuts,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> bannock, bagels, and pancakes, though not physically originating from Canada, have nonetheless developed within a broader tradition of nationally recognized cuisine.
Canadian cuisine has been shaped by the historical and ongoing influences of Indigenous peoples, settlers and immigrants.<ref name=hj/> Indigenous influences remain prevalent in Canada's contemporary food scene, alongside those of the three major immigrant groups of the 17th and 18th centuries: English, Scottish, and French. This diversity has been further expanded by subsequent waves of immigration in later centuries.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 26 April 2022. Back Roads</ref>
Indigenous
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The traditional Indigenous cuisine of Canada is based on a mixture of wild game, foraged foods, and farmed agricultural products. Indigenous peoples are known to gather more than five-hundred plant species for food. They cultivate and forage a variety of plants, hunt a diversity of animals, and use various tools to boil, smoke/preserve and roast their food.<ref name="firstlawcomic.com"/> Each region of Canada, with its own First Nations and Inuit, utilizes local resources and distinct preparation techniques for their cuisines.
Dried meat products such as Template:Lang and pemmican are commonly consumed by the Indigenous peoples of the plains. In particular, the former was a predecessor for North American-style beef jerky, with the processing methods adapted for beef.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In most of the Canadian West Coast and Pacific Northwest, Pacific salmon is an important food resource to the First Nations peoples, along with certain marine mammals. Salmon are consumed fresh during the spawning season, or smoked dry to create a jerky-like food that can be stored year-round. The latter food is commonly known and sold as "salmon jerky".
In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into igunaq or kiviak. These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as muktuk, which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an ulu prior to or during consumption.
Fish are eaten boiled, fried, and prior to today's settlements, often in dried forms. The so-called "Eskimo potato", (Inuit: oak-kuk: Claytonia tuberosa)<ref>merriam-webster.com Retrieved June 21, 2011.</ref> and other "mousefoods", are some of the plants consumed in the Arctic.
Foods such as "bannock", popular with First Nations and Inuit, reflect the historic exchange of these cultures with European fur traders, who brought with them new ingredients and foods.<ref name="gobc">Template:Cite web</ref> Common contemporary consumption of bannock, powdered milk, and bologna by Indigenous Canadians reflects the legacy of Canadian colonialism in the prohibition of hunting and fishing, and the institutional food rations provided to Indian reserves.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Due to similarities in treatment under colonialism, many Native American communities throughout the continent consume similar food items, with some emphasis on local ingredients.Template:Citation needed
Seafood had an important influence on the early European settlers and explorers of Atlantic Canada, which continues to be expressed in Maritime cuisine and culture to this day. In the late 15th-century, John Cabot's journey to the shores of what would become Newfoundland brought England knowledge of the Grand Banks and their abundance in cod. He is reported to have told King Henry VII that "the sea was covered with fish which could be caught not merely by nets, but weighted basket lowered into the water."<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (Chicago, 1967), Vol. 4, 557</ref> Fleets of fishermen from England, France, Portugal, and Spain flocked to Newfoundland to return with fish, filling a market need in Europe and cutting out the necessity of importing from Iceland.<ref name="Dorothy Duncan 2011">Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. Dundurn Toronto.</ref> The English, Scottish, Irish, and French settlers of what would become the Atlantic provinces frequently built their communities beside the ocean and rivers for easy access, and the fishing industry along the Canadian east coast steadily expanded until it became the region's major industry.<ref name="Dorothy Duncan 2011"/> Accounts from early settlers list fish that were caught, sold, and incorporated into local meals, such as trout, eels, mackerel, oysters, lobsters, salmon, cod and herring.<ref name="Dorothy Duncan 2011"/> Meals that incorporated such fish included, and continue to include, fried cod roe, fried or baked cod tongues, stewed or fried cod heads, fish hash, codfish balls, cod sounds, toast and fish, roasted scrawn, fish and brewis, salt fish and potatoes, and boiled rounders, among others.<ref name="Dorothy Duncan 2011"/> The abundance of seafood and the ease by which it could be obtained made the British and French colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Acadia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador attractive destinations for settlers.
The influx of United Empire Loyalists into British North America in the 18th century, and the subsequent establishment of Upper Canada, saw the wider expansion of British cooking with indigenous ingredients in the future province of Ontario. These settlers established customs similar to their compatriots in England, but with a particular focus on dietary staples, such as meat, bread, and tea.<ref name="link.springer.com">Eric D. Tourigny Template:Cite journalHistorical Archaeology</ref> Local forage and game were typically incorporated into the cooking of early English-Canadians in Upper Canada, such as wild berries, maple sugar, venison, partridge, waterfowl, maize, pumpkin, and turkey.<ref name="link.springer.com"/> Meals often contained more meat than was typical in England and were particularly reliant on pork and potatoes during early settlement, although these meals began to include beef and mutton as farming became more established in the region.<ref name="link.springer.com"/> Roasting was a common method of cooking for Upper Canadians, and Scottish immigration, largely onset by the Highland Clearances, brought a wider emphasis on mutton.<ref name="link.springer.com"/>
The Victorian era saw a greater swell of British immigration to Upper Canada, Lower Canada, and the Atlantic colonies; further, the urban and rural development that followed encouraged the spread of eating establishments, local cookbooks, and a busier ingredients market. By the mid-19th century, there was a tavern every couple odd miles along the major roads of Upper Canada; reportedly, there were 29 such establishments along the route between Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia alone.<ref>Craig Heron, BOOZE (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2003), 28.</ref> The larger urban centres, such as Toronto, Kingston, and Coburg in Upper Canada, Montreal and Quebec City in Lower Canada, and Halifax in Nova Scotia, saw the opening of hotels that could better serve a burgeoning upper class of Victorian patrons.<ref>Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 84</ref> These hotels, broadly, provided beef steak, fried pork, buckwheat cakes, roast beef and pork, wild game and fowl, vegetables, pudding, and tea.<ref>Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 85</ref> Cookbooks published during this period include The Home Cookbook (1877) and The Galt Cook Book (1898).<ref>Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 87, 88</ref> Traditions that developed out of the Victorian era in Canada include the Victorian cooking fireplace, which saw continued use in homes and restaurants even after the metal stove was introduced, and picnics, which often involved ham, fowl, meat pies, tarts, and cakes.<ref>Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 85, 89</ref>
In the territory of Rupert's Land, the development of communities throughout the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, which centred around Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company trading posts, saw to the intermingling of European (largely Scottish and French) traders, clerks, guides, and canoers with the local Indigenous population.<ref name="auto4">Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto)</ref> The resulting genesis of the Métis culture saw to the development of cuisine in the Canadian West which combined the culinary traditions of these previously separate groups.
With the arrival of the Earl of Selkirk and his Scottish retinue (people largely displaced by the Highland Clearances), as well as the purchase of forty-five million acres of land in the Red River Valley, many Scottish culinary traditions were brought to the region.<ref name="auto4"/> These foods included black bun, haggis, honey cakes, and rowies. Cooperation with the local Métis saw Scottish immigrants hunting buffalo and incorporating game into their meals.<ref name="auto4"/>
The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the late 19th-century led to a significant influx of not just settlers of British origin, but of also a multitude of different backgrounds, notably Ukrainian, Polish, German, Scandinavian, Belgian, Dutch, Greek, Czech, Slovak, Chinese, American, Mennonite, and Jewish.<ref name="auto4"/> It is in this way that the Canadian Prairies, or the future provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, were a frontier of multicultural community-building in Canada, and the creation of a regional cuisine which absorbed influences from a variety of ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds.
Icelandic immigration has a particular influence on the cuisine of Manitoba, which, besides Iceland itself, has a larger Icelandic population than anywhere else in the world. One example is vinarterta, a layer cake filled with prune jam and flavoured with cardamom, and a popular Christmas treat in Manitoba. Bakeries in the province often include other pastries brought over and adapted from Iceland, including kleinur (similar to doughnuts), laufabrauð (flatbread decorated with patterns), kransakaka (a type of cake with almonds), and ugbraud (a rye bread).<ref>Tom Shingler Template:Cite web</ref>
In Canada's Prairie provinces, which saw significant immigration from Eastern and Northern Europe in the pre-WWI era, Ukrainian, German, and Polish cuisines are strong culinary influences. Such examples include perogies, kielbasa, and babka. Emigration from Russia to Western Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also established a Doukhobor influence, noted in particular for its emphasis on vegetarian recipes on the cuisine of the British Columbia Interior and the Prairies.<ref name=hj/>
Jewish immigrants to Canada during the late 1800s played a significant culinary role within Canada, chiefly renowned for Montreal-style bagels and Montreal-style smoked meat. A regional variation of both emerged within Winnipeg, Manitoba's Jewish community, which also derived Winnipeg-style cheesecake from New York City recipes. Winnipeg has given birth to numerous other unique dishes, such as the schmoo torte, smoked goldeye and "co-op style" rye bread and cream cheese.
The "Chinese buffet", although found in other parts of North America, traces its origins to early Gastown, Vancouver, Template:Circa. This meal format developed from the practice of Chinese restaurateurs providing a steam table on a sideboard to serve Scandinavian lumberjacks working in local forests and mills.Template:Citation needed
Japanese-Canadians have had a profound influence on the cuisines of British Columbia and Ontario. Distinct varieties of sushi, such as the B.C. roll and the California roll, originate from the Metro Vancouver region, while sushi pizza was invented in Toronto. Japadog street food in Vancouver is also a popular example of Canadian west coast fusion cuisine.
Indian and South Asian culinary influences are a relatively recent addition to Canadian cuisine, having gained wider prominence in the country during the post-1960's era of immigration,<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> despite earlier South Asian settlement in British Columbia dating back to the late 19th century.<ref name=WaltonRobertsThreeReadings>Walton-Roberts, Margaret. 1998. "Three Readings of the Turban: Sikh Identity in Greater Vancouver" (Archive). In Urban Geography, Vol. 19: 4, June. - DOI 10.2747/0272-3638.19.4.311 - Available atAcademia.edu and at ResearchGate. p. 316.</ref> Indian food is particularly popular in Canada, deriving mostly from Northern Indian cuisine. It is characterized for its use of bread, curry, and use of yogurt and cream for meat-based dishes; it also draws inspiration from South Indian cuisine in its use of sour and spicy combinations.<ref name=":0" />
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Contributions from Southeast Asia to Canadian cuisine includes a style of medium-thick crust pizza Margherita in Toronto. An example of fusion cuisine, the pizza is topped with garlic and basil oil topping, combining an Italian pizza with the Vietnamese tradition of using herbed oil toppings in food.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
While numerous and varied ingredients are commonly found throughout Canada, each region, with its tradition of culinary development, utilizes locally derived ingredients, both wild and agricultural, which are used to define unique dishes. The table below is meant to provide particular examples of regional staples and their key local ingredient.
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Seafood is a very common constituent of Canadian cuisine broadly, but particularly in British Columbia and the Atlantic provinces. West Coast salmon varieties include sockeye, coho, chinook (also known as king), chum (also known as dog salmon), and pink, while salmon used on the East Coast can be broadly defined as Atlantic salmon. Freshwater fish, such as the walleye (also known as pickerel) and lake whitefish are commercially fished in the Great Lakes and are popular in southern Ontario. Both wild-caught and farmed rainbow trout are consumed throughout Canada.
Although the majority of Canada's fish yield is captured wild, about 28% of the country's yield came from aquaculture in 2018.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 27 April 2022. OECD</ref> British Columbia accounts for 49% of the country's total aquaculture production volume, while the Maritime provinces account for 46%. Canada is the world's fourth-largest producer of farmed salmon, and other species, such as trout, Arctic char, mussels, oysters, and clams are well established industries.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 27 April 2022. Government of Canada</ref>
Alberta is renowned for its production of beef; in 2016, Alberta's cattle herd accounted for 41.6% of the national total.<ref>Template:Cite webStatistics Canada</ref> Alberta beef is thought to have a rich marbled flavour due to the province's nutritious grasslands and barley. Examples of local recipes that utilize Alberta beef include beef tartare, bistecca, roast beef, Sunday roast, short ribs, ginger-fried beef, and grilled steak.<ref>Template:Cite webVisit Calgary</ref> Canada ranks among the world's top 10 per capita consumers of beef.<ref>Template:Cite webCanadian Encyclopedia</ref>
Saskatchewan is often referred to as the "breadbasket of Canada"; it accounts for nearly 50% of Canada's total crop yield and for two-fifths of the country's total field acreage.<ref name="statcan1">Template:Cite webStatistics Canada</ref> In 2016, canola and spring wheat were the two largest crops, Saskatoon berries accounted for over half of the "fruit, berry and nut area", and sweet corn was the largest field vegetable crop by area.<ref name="statcan1"/> Saskatchewan also produces most of the country's spice yield, particularly mustard, but also caraway and coriander.<ref>Template:Cite webThe Canadian Encyclopedia</ref>
Canadian foods
Main dishes, side dishes and appetizers
Although there are considerable overlaps between Canadian culinary practices and those of the British Isles, France and the rest of North America, many dishes (or variations of imported dishes) are particular to, quintessential of, or available only in Canada.
Sweet and salty cornmeal cake topped with maple syrup and butter. Consists of pastry flour, shortening, and brown sugar.<ref>Template:Cite webSeasons & Suppers. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref>
Made from a starchy batter of whole-wheat flour, baking soda, sugar, eggs, milk, and butter; adapted from the German Pfannkuchen.<ref>Template:Cite webtaste atlas Retrieved 3 April 2022</ref> It is a particularly fluffy pancake due to the folding and beating method required in preparing the mixture.<ref>Template:Cite webRecipeLibrary.net Retrieved 3 April 2022</ref> Maple syrup and fruit are common toppings.
Similar to European head cheese; made with a combination of boiled and sliced moose nose meat (dark meat around the bones and white meat from the bulb of the nose), garlic, onions, salt, pepper, vinegar, and spices such as cloves, mustard seeds, cinnamon, or allspice. It is then cooled and refrigerated until solidified. Served as a loaf cut into slices.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Hamburger consisting of a Ukrainian garlic sausage, referred to as "kubie", that is pressed and then served in a bun or bread roll. Name comes from the Albertan abbreviation of the word "kubasa", which is the corrupted name for kovbasa, meaning "sausage" in Ukrainian.<ref name="Kubie Burger"/>
Canadian version of coleslaw, consisting of cabbage, onions, maple syrup, and seasonings. Variations include apple cider vinegar, celery seeds, mayonnaise, cheese, cereals, and chocolate. Served as salad, dessert or snack, or condiment for burgers and sandwiches.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Cooked, mashed, and dehydrated potatoes that are reconstituted by adding hot water or milk<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 20 April 2022. Curiocity</ref>
Variation of shepherd's pie developed by Chinese railway workers; comfort food consisting of layers of ground beef, corn, and mashed potatoes.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 27 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Dumplings introduced, and made ubiquitous, to the Prairies by Ukrainian and Polish immigrants. Canadian variations often include cheddar cheese.<ref>Gabby Peyton Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Traditional Sunday dinner, reflective of Canada's British heritage.<ref>Eds. Melanie Byrd and John P. Dunn (2020). "Canada (1800-present)". Cooking Through History: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Food with Menus and Recipes, pg. 344</ref>
Commonwealth food commonly found throughout Canada. Typically viewed in Canada as a utilitarian snack, and can include marjoram, summer savoury, and dijon mustard.<ref>Cynthia Jackson (2017) Template:Cite webFood Mack. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref><ref>Template:Cite webCanadian Living. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref>
Fusion dish with fried rice patty as base and topped with a layer of sliced avocado, a layer of sliced salmon, tuna or crab meat, and a drizzle of blended mayonnaise and wasabi powder. Served in wedges.
Has a medium-thin crust, most often topped with oregano-spiked tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese produced by Galati, canned mushrooms, and sticks of shredded pepperoni. Toppings are traditionally placed overtop of the cheese. Cooked on cornmeal on stone deck ovens.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref><ref>Template:Cite news Retrieved 21 April 2022. The Globe and Mail</ref>
Wonton shells filled with dungeness crab, dijon mustard, and miso paste, among other ingredients. Usually topped with shaved radishes.<ref name="Iconic Foods of Canada: British Col"/><ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 24 April 2022. Vancouver Magazine</ref>
Wild smoked salmon, maple mustard coleslaw and spicy srirachamayonnaise layered in between a ciabatta bun.<ref name="foodnetwork.ca">Template:Cite web Retrieved 22 April 2022. Food Network</ref>
Crusted meat pie containing mashed potatoes, cooked salmon, and various spices and herbs.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 27 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Medium-sized, firm, and dark caviar with a buttery and nutty flavour. Often served with a protein, bread, or dairy product, such as fish, blinis, or crème fraîche.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 17 August 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Also referred to as "Nova Scotia" or "Fundy" seafood chowder. Contains a variety of Atlantic seafood ingredients, such as haddock, lobster, scallops, shrimp and/or clams. May also contain bacon, potatoes, carrots, onions, pepper, salt, dill and chives. Dairy may be 35% heavy cream, whipping cream, half-and-half, or canned milk.<ref>Kelly Neil (2021) Template:Cite web Retrieved 24 April 2022. Kelly Neil</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 24 April 2022. the fashionista cook</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 24 April 2022. allrecipes</ref>
Traditional Nunavummiut stew made with a combination of boneless caribou cubes, onions, celery, red wine, tomato paste, bay leaves, thyme, potatoes, carrots, turnips, beef stock, oil, salt, and pepper. Lengthy simmering is required to tenderize all ingredients.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
A vegetarian borscht distinguished by its orange colour. Contains cream, mashed potatoes, dill, and often beets.<ref name="Iconic Foods of Canada: British Col">Template:Cite webEat This Town</ref>
French-Canadian comfort food prepared with yellow peas, salted pork, and fresh herbs.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref> Often served with johnnycake in Anglophone areas.
Québécois dish, commonly served with turkey, eaten during the holiday season in Québec made of pig's feet, onions, toasted flour, and spices.
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Pastries and desserts
Many pastries and desserts originate from Canada. Over 2100 bakery product manufacturing establishments, and more than 1200 retail bakeries, operate in the country.<ref>Template:Cite webStatista. Retrieved 30 March 2022</ref> Tim Hortons, a Canadian restaurant chain that specialized in baked goods, maintains the highest number of franchises in the country.<ref>Renee Bailey (2020) Template:Cite webFranchise Direct. Retrieved 30 March 2022.</ref>
Apple fritter—deep fried pastry rolled with apple and cinnamon, broken into pieces and then reformed into a single mass, then glazed with icing.
Beaver tails—also known as elephant ears, moose antlers, dog ears, whale tails, or simply fried dough.
Brownie dominoes with wild blueberry cinnamon sauce—British Columbia regional delicacy; chocolate brownies topped with sauce made of wild B.C. blueberries and heated cinnamon.<ref name="foodnetwork.ca"/>
Nanaimo bars—consists of three layers: a wafer, nut (walnuts, almonds, or pecans), and coconut crumb base; custard icing in the middle; and a layer of chocolate ganache on top. Most common in British Columbia, gaining its name sake from the Vancouver Island town of Nanaimo, BC.
Nanaimo balls—a bite-sized variation of the British Columbian classic. Considered a Christmas treat.
Passion flakes—pastry sandwich filled with raspberries or apple jam, and vanilla icing or whipped cream.
Persians—somewhat like a cross between a large cinnamon bun and a doughnut, topped with strawberry icing; particular to Thunder Bay.
Sweet bannock—a piece of bannock sweetened with cinnamon and sugar, or made into bread pudding with berries.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 28 April 2022. Food Network</ref>
Tea biscuit—similar to the North American biscuit or scone; quickbread typically made with cheese and herbs.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 2022-04-29. All Recipes</ref>
Timbits—fried balls of dough taken from the centre of a doughnut, provided in a variety of flavours and toppings.
Figgy duff—pudding from Newfoundland containing molasses and raisins.
Maple syrup—especially as tire d'érable sur la neige or "maple toffee" or "taffy". Often used as flavouring (such as in "maple leaf cream cookies", "grandpères", or "Canadian maple donuts").
Maple taffy—a sugar candy made by pouring hot maple sap onto snow.
Blueberry grunt, a combination of stewed blueberries and sweet dumplings common in the Maritimes, especially Cape Breton<ref name="capebretonenglish">Template:Cite web</ref>
Cape Breton pork pie, a small meatless tart containing dates and topped with maple icing.<ref name="capebretonenglish"/>
Dairy products became prominent among Central Canadian producers in the 1860s. Ontario's first cheese factory opened in 1863, and by the end of the decade, they had expanded to over two-hundred. The 1860s also saw to the start of a shift from wheat production to dairy and livestock in Quebec, which would become the dominant agricultural sector in the province by the early 20th century. Cream and cheese factory production would begin to increase exponentially in both Central and Eastern Canada by the 1880s.<ref name="farms.com">Template:Cite webFarms.com. Retrieved 16 April 2022</ref>
Canada is currently the 12th largest producer of cheese by tonnage,<ref>Template:Cite webAtlas Big. Retrieved 19 March 2022</ref> and is considered to be one of the major cheese-producing countries.<ref name="statista.com">Template:Cite webStatista Retrieved 19 March 2022</ref> Canadian cheese is mostly "firm", with cheddar and mozzarella being the most produced varieties in 2020.<ref name="statista.com"/> Among Canadians, specialty cheese (such as cream cheese, cottage cheese, and parmesan) is the most popular type, with cheddar being the second-most.<ref name="statista.com"/>
Commercially-prepared food, condiments and beverages
Canadian white bread, simply referred to as "white bread" in Canada, is distinct from its international counterparts due to the high protein content of Canadian wheat, as required by the Canadian Grain Commission, which gives it a heartier consistency.
Canadian coffee—a blend of coffee, rye whisky, and maple syrup, often with whipped cream.<ref>Template:Cite webFood. Retrieved 25 March 2022</ref><ref>Template:Cite webFood Network. Retrieved 25 March 2022</ref><ref>Sumit Malhotra (2020) Template:Cite webGo Sum It Up. Retrieved 25 March 2022</ref><ref>Template:Cite webJ.P. Wiser. Retrieved 25 March 2022</ref>
Canadian tea—various tea varieties grown and developed in the Chemainus River valley<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 27 April 2022. Westholme Tea Company</ref>
Canada is considered one of the top whisky-producing countries, and is most renowned for rye whisky.<ref name="insidermonkey.com">Template:Cite webInsider Monkey. Retrieved 22 March 2022</ref> Regulation states that Canadian whisky must age for a minimum of three years and be kept in oak barrels.<ref name="insidermonkey.com"/> Canada houses about thirty whisky distilleries across the country, and produces 54.2 million liters.<ref name="usaspiritsratings.com">Template:Cite webUSA Spirit Ratings. Retrieved 22 March 2022</ref> Canadian whisky is noted for its light and smooth style, and though most of it is blended,<ref name="usaspiritsratings.com"/> single-malt and 100% rye are some of the country's most desired. The Glenora Inn & Distillery is the only single-malt distillery in North America. Template:Cn
Canada's wine industry is over two-hundred years old and includes the wine regions of British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 22 April 2022. Vineyards.com</ref> Canada's first commercial vineyard, the Pelee Island Winery, was established in 1866. There are currently over eight-hundred licensed wineries in the country, with the most recognized wine-producing areas being southern Ontario (most notably the Niagara peninsula), and the Okanagan valley of British Columbia.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 22 April 2022. Wines of Canada</ref>
Angry Canadian—a variety of the Old Fashioned, made with a combination of Canadian rye whiskey, bitters, club soda or water, and pure maple syrup<ref name="8 Most Popular CANADIAN COCKTAILS">Template:Cite web Retrieved 19 April 2022. Taste Atlas</ref>
Canadian blueberry sour—a mix of rye whisky, blueberry liqueur, and maple syrup.<ref>Monica Carbonell (2018) Template:Cite webLiquid Culture.</ref>
Caribou—a mix of red wine, maple syrup, and Canadian whisky; consumed during winter festivals in Quebec
Donald Sutherland—a combination of Canadian rye whiskey and drambuie, prepared with both ingredients poured into an ice-filled old-fashioned glass, then stirred<ref name="8 Most Popular CANADIAN COCKTAILS"/>
Mahogany—a combination of Jägermeister, Benedictine, dry vermouth, and cinnamon tincture, prepared with a cocktail glass coated with the cinnamon tincture or cinnamon schnapps<ref name="8 Most Popular CANADIAN COCKTAILS"/>
Maple liqueur—sold bottled as Sortilege, this drink combines Canadian whisky and maple syrup
Moose Milk—a cream and spirit (usually rye whisky and dark rum) drink served and consumed at celebratory events of the Canadian Armed Forces
The Queen Mary—beer mixed with grenadine, with maraschino cherries dropped into the glass as a garnish
While most major cities in Canada offer a variety of street food, each region has specialties which reflect local cultural influences. Montreal food trucks offer shish taouk, the Montreal hot dog, and dollar falafels. Although falafel is available in Vancouver, East Asian-influenced offerings are much more widespread, including sushi, samosas, Vietnamese banh mi or pho, Filipino offerings, and various Japanese and Chinese cuisines. In Victoria, British Columbia, vegan and vegetarian burgers are common, as are various seafood take-aways and Mexican-influenced street food. Since 2007, Toronto has encouraged vendors to sell street food from a wider variety of cuisines.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In Western Canada, a version of the Ukrainian garlic-pork sausage, referred to as "kubasa" (a corruption of the Ukrainian sausage "kobasa")<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is widely available.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The term "smokies" or "smokeys" may refer to kubasa rather than frankfurters.
Fusion cultural foods are constantly evolving, such as the Japadog, which tops a hot dog with traditional Japanese ingredients, such as wasabi, teriyaki, shredded daikon radish, or bonito (fish) flakes. Pizza slices are a common street offering. Shawarma is quite prevalent in Ottawa and Windsor, while Halifax offers its own unique version of the döner kebab called the donair, which features a distinctive sauce made from condensed milk, sugar, garlic and vinegar. Ice cream trucks can be seen (and often heard due to a jingle being broadcast on loudspeakers) nationwide during the summer months. Winnipeg has a line-up of food truck vendors on Main Street.
Lebanese Canadian fast-food restaurants such as Boustan offer their own unique version of poutine called the shawarma poutine, which features shawarma meat on top.
Street food markets
Various street food markets exist across the country. Metro Vancouver offers the "Richmond Night Market", with over 200 retail stalls offering predominantly East Asian-inspired food, such as grilled octopus, takoyaki, dumplings, fish sticks, and taiyaki.<ref name="theculturetrip.com">Hayley Simpson (2017) Template:Cite webCulture Trip. Retrieved 4 April 2022</ref> As well, there is the Shipyards Night Market in North Vancouver, which is more varied in its offerings and provides more than 35 food trucks per week over the course of its annual run.<ref name="theculturetrip.com"/>
In Alberta, notable street food markets include the Calgary Night Market, as well as the Calgary Stampede Night Market and Edmonton's What the Truck?.<ref name="theculturetrip.com"/> The Greater Toronto area runs Market 707, Adelaide Eats, and Night It Up!.<ref name="theculturetrip.com"/> Market 707 on Dundas Street is of particular aesthetic note given that it is formed out of refurbished shipping containers.<ref name="theculturetrip.com"/> Eastern Canada also maintains several street food markets of note, including Montreal's First Fridays and Halifax's Trusk-Side.<ref name="theculturetrip.com"/>
Though finding consensus among Canadians in determining a national food or dish can prove difficult, there are nonetheless several items broadly recognized as being representative of Canada's national cuisine. Foods typically considered national dishes of Canada include poutine<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref name=GAM>Template:Citation</ref> and butter tarts.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref> Canadian back or peameal bacon, as well as Atlantic or Pacific salmon, are also commonly thought of as representative of Canada.<ref name="Canada: If Canada were to identify">Template:Cite webStatista. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref>
Published by the Statista Research Department, a June 2015 poll asked Canadians, "If Canada were to identify one of the following as official national food, which should it be?" The results revealed Canadian bacon to be the top choice, followed by poutine:<ref name="Canada: If Canada were to identify"/>
Canadian bacon (35%)
Poutine (30%)
Atlantic or Pacific salmon (17%)
Beavertail (8%)
Tourtiere (6%)
Doughnut (4%)
CanCulture Magazine conducted a 2021 social media poll that sampled from fifty-five Canadians given ten choices. The poll revealed the following results:<ref>Kaitlyn Stock (2021) Template:Cite web Retrieved 19 April 2022. CanCulture Magazine</ref>
Poutine (38.9%)
Maple syrup (25.9%)
BeaverTails (9.3%)
Peameal bacon and Timbits (7.4% each)
According to an informal survey by The Globe and Mail conducted through Facebook from collected comments, users considered the following to be the Canadian national dish, with maple syrup likely above all the other foods if it were considered:<ref name=GAM/>Template:Better source needed
In 2020, Hayley Simpson<ref>Hayley Simpson (2020) Template:Cite web Retrieved 19 April 2022. The Culture Trip</ref> identified the "best signature Canadian dishes" as poutine, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, beavertails, tourtière, pea soup, Halifax donair, Saskatoon berry pie, and Montreal-style bagels. The following year, Reader's Digest published an article<ref>Elianna Lev (2021) Template:Cite web Retrieved 19 April 2022. Reader's Digest Canada</ref> similarly listing "10 Must-Try Canadian Dishes" as poutine, Canadian bacon, caesar, beavertails, Canadian pizza, butter tarts, Nanaimo bars, split pea soup, tourtière, and ketchup (namely "ketchup" chips).
As in other countries, Canadian meals are commonly segmented accordingly to their suitability for the time of day.
Breakfast takes place in the morning and typically consists of a variety of foods, such as toast, biscuits, muffins, scones, pancakes, bacon, bagels, cereals, fruit and eggs, among others. Breakfast condiments are very common and can often include an assortment of jam, cream cheese, peanut butter, marmalade, or Nutella. Typical drinks include water, juice, coffee, and tea. Breakfast traditionally occurs before work or school on weekdays, or otherwise soon after waking up in the morning. An archetypal French-Canadian meal may contain more starch-based material, while an English-Canadian meal might consist of more protein.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite webAngloinfo</ref>
Lumberjack's breakfast, also known as logger's breakfast or "the lumby"—a gargantuan breakfast of three-plus eggs, rations of ham, bacon and sausages, and several large pancakes. This was invented by hotelier J. Houston Template:Circa, at his Granville Hotel on Water Street in old pre-railway Gastown, Vancouver, in response to requests from his clientele for a better "feed" at the start of a long day of work.<ref name="AM1">From Milltown to Metropolis, Alan Morley</ref><ref name="JSSM1">Early Vancouver, J.S. Skitt Matthews</ref>
Coffee customarily refers to a small meal during a break from labour. This involves the consumption of a snack that, although it is the typical drink of choice (hence the name), may or may not include coffee. The Canada Labour Code requires employers to provide 30-minute breaks for every five consecutive hours of work.<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 16 March 2022.</ref>
Lunch generally takes place around noon. Sandwiches, soups, fruit, nuts, cheese and a variety of snacks are common foods during this meal. Lunches are usually compact, utilitarian, and/or casual, particularly given that they are often eaten at work, school, or otherwise outside of the home.<ref name="auto"/>
Dinner usually takes place from anywhere between 17:00 to 19:00, and tend to be heartier affairs based around protein and vegetables. Local flora and fauna are most fully realized during dinner; in the Maritimes, dinner may be more likely to include fish, while the Prairies might include more beef.<ref name="auto"/>
Sunday dinner in Canada is commonly observed as a more formal affair than typical dinners, often involving family and/or guests, and a more thoroughly prepared meal. Roast beef is a common centerpiece,<ref>Template:Cite webCanadian Living. Retrieved 4 April 2022.</ref> but particular specialties also vary by region, such as traditional Prairie pot roast<ref>Valerie Lugonja (2013) Template:Cite webA Canadian Foodie. Retrieved 4 April 2022</ref> and Newfoundland Jiggs dinner.<ref>Template:Cite webNewfoundland Labrador. Retrieved 4 April 2022</ref>
Chinese buffet or smorgasbord is a particular meal system invented in Gastown, Vancouver and prevalent throughout the country. This style of buffet was developed in the 19th century by Chinese immigrants in order to cater to the local clientele of Scandinavian Canadianloggers. Staples of Chinese-Canadian cuisine, as well as North American Chinese cuisine broadly, such as ginger beef, chow mein, and dumplings, are commonly available.<ref>Katelyn Marchyshyn (2020) Template:Cite web Retrieved 21 April 2022. Eat North</ref>
Potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. Although the occasion as a whole incorporates complex political, social, and economic elements, feasting is still a central aspect of the practice.<ref>Template:Cite web Retrieved 26 April 2022. Encyclopedia</ref>
Réveillon is a long dinner held in the evenings preceding Christmas Day and New Year's Eve, and is a traditional practice for French-Canadians across the country. Meals tend to be particularly opulent, and may include lobster, oysters, escargot, foie gras, and tourtière. A traditional dessert for this occasion is Yule log.
Food festivals
Various food festivals take place annually across Canada and in accordance with seasonality, often in celebration of a local culinary tradition or industry. The list below is a selection of food festivals by region (giving their location and standard month(s) of occurrence), and is not exhaustive.
British Columbia
BC Seafood Festival (Comox Valley; June)<ref name="forbes.com">Sandra MacGregor (2019) Template:Cite webForbes. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref>
Sun Peaks Winter Okanagan Wine Festival (Sun Peaks; January)<ref name="canadiangeographic.ca">Siobhan McClelland (2012) Template:Cite webCanadian Geographic. Retrieved 20 March 2022</ref>
File:A review of the work of the Experimental Farms (1913) (14591998879).jpg"Marquis" wheat (left) compared to "Preston". The Marquis variety made a marked improvement in maturation speed, harvest efficiency, and winter resilience, and became the basis for all future major wheat strains in Canada.<ref name="farms.com"/>
While an abundance of livestock breeds and crops originating from other countries are grown and raised in Canada, there is also a variety of unique breeds and cultivars that have been developed domestically. Below is a selection of various livestock breeds and cultivars that originate from Canada.
Due to an influx of grain from the Prairies into British Columbia during the late 19th century, via the advent of the Canadian rail network, the province's grain production became largely redundant. This allowed for the development of specialized produce industries, such as fruit in the Okanagan. As a result, many of Canada's unique apple varieties have been developed in the interior of British Columbia.<ref name="farms.com"/>
There are over sixty potato varieties that originate from Canada. Many of these were developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, largely in New Brunswick, but also in Alberta, Newfoundland, Ontario, and Quebec.<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref> The following is a small sampling of Canadian potatoes:
Abeille<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Blue Mac<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Carlton<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Eramosa<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Fundy<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Glenwood Red<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Island Sunshine<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Hunter<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Maple Gold<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
Pacific Russet<ref>Template:Cite webGovernment of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022</ref>
File:Lambert sheep.jpg"Canadian Arcott" sheep, as well as the "Rideau" and "Outaouais" Arcotts, were developed at the Animal Research Centre in Ottawa, of which the word "Arcott" is an acronym for.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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