Catalan phonology

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The Catalan phonology (or Valencian phonology) has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard varieties, one based on Central Eastern dialect and another one based on South-Western or Valencian, this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences.

Catalan is characterized by final-obstruent devoicing, lenition, and voicing assimilation; a set of 7 to 8 phonemic vowels, vowel assimilations (including vowel harmony), many phonetic diphthongs, and vowel reduction, whose precise details differ between dialects.

Template:Catalan-Valencian cultural domain

Consonants

Consonants of CatalanTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:IPA link{{#if:3|3|[1]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:6|6|[2]}} (Template:IPA link)
Plosive voiceless Template:IPA link Template:IPA link{{#if:1|1|[3]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:2|2|[4]}}
voiced Template:IPA link Template:IPA link{{#if:1|1|[5]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:2|2|[6]}}
Affricate voiceless (Template:IPA link){{#if:5|5|[7]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:7|7|[8]}}
voiced Template:IPA link{{#if:5|5|[9]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:7|7|[10]}}
Fricative voiceless Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link{{#if:4|4|[11]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:7|7|[12]}} (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)
voiced (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link{{#if:4|4|[13]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:7|7|[14]}} (Template:IPA link)
Approximant central Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
lateral Template:IPA link{{#if:3|3|[15]}} Template:IPA link{{#if:6|6|[16]}}
Trill Template:IPA link{{#if:4|4|[17]}} (Template:IPA link)
Tap Template:IPA link{{#if:3|3|[18]}}

Phonetic notes:

Obstruents

Obstruents assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant. Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('cold', m. s.) is pronounced with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) while {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('cold', f. pl.) is pronounced with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Table with minimal pairs:

Coda obstruents minimal pairs
IPA word gloss word gloss
main}} lang}} 'cube' lang}} 'winepress'
main}} lang}} 'thrush' lang}} 'crooked'
main}} lang}} 'magician' lang}} 'pebble'
main}} lang}} 'exempt'
main}} lang}} 'he or she buzzes' lang}} 'dark browns'
main}} lang}} 'ray'

Plosives

Voiced plosives (also called stops) become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants:Template:Sfn {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → Template:IPAblink, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → Template:IPAblink, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → Template:IPAblink.

  • Exceptions include {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after lateral consonants (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'oeil-de-boeuf') and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after labiodentals ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('really good pen').
  • In non-betacist dialects (those who do not merge {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} remains unlenited ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (B) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (V) 'oeil-de-boeuf').
  • In some dialects, e.g. many Valencian accents, initial (that is, in all environments except after a nasal) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be lenited: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('cat').Template:Sfn
  • In the coda position, these sounds are always realized as stops;Template:Sfn except in some Valencian dialects, where they might be lenited.Template:Sfn

In Catalan and Balearic (not in Valencian), labial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and velar stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be geminated in intervocalic position before {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'village, people', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'rule').Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is dropped (particularly in participles) in regular speech in Valencian, with compensatory lengthening of vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('afternoon').Template:Sfn

In Majorcan varieties, velar stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} become Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink word-finally and before front vowels,Template:Sfn in some of these dialects, this has extended to all environments except before liquids and back vowels; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('blood').Template:Sfn

  • The dorso-palatal Template:IPAblink may occur in complementary distribution with Template:IPAblink, only in Majorcan varieties that have dorso-palatals rather than the velars found in most dialects: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('war') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('the war').Template:Sfn

In the Valencian dialects final voiceless plosives ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) may be lenited before a vowel: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('all this').Template:Sfn

Affricates

The phonemic status of affricates is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('hair parting')Template:Sfn and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.

  • Alveolar affricates, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink, occur the least of all affricates.Template:Sfn
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} only occurs intervocalically: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('toxic substances').Template:Sfn
      • In Valencian, many instances of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (especially the -itzar suffix) are deaffricated to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to use').
    • Instances of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} arise mostly from compounding; the few lexical instances arise from historical compounding.Template:Sfn For instance, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('maybe') comes from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('may') + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('be' inf). As such, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} does not occur word-initially; other than some rare words of foreign origin (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tsar',Template:Efn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tsuga'Template:Efn), but it may occur word-finally and quite often in cases of heteromorphemic (i.e. across a morpheme boundary) plural endings: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('everybody').Template:Sfn Several linguists claim {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not a phoneme on its own, but a simple combination of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, in the same way that the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in English 'cats' is not phonemic.Template:Sfn
  • The distribution of alveolo-palatal affricates, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink, depends on dialect:
    • In most of Valencian and southern Catalonia,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn most occurrences of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} correspond to the voiced fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Standard Eastern Catalan: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('ice').
    • In Standard Eastern Catalan, word-initial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in a few words of foreign origin (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Czech',Template:Efn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Tchaikovsky') while being found freely intervocalically (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'arrow') and word-finally: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('office').
    • Standard Eastern Catalan also only allows {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in intervocalic position (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'medic'). Phonemic analyses show word-final occurrences of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'skew ray'), but final devoicing eliminates this from the surface: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('ray').
    • In various other dialects (as well as in emphatic speech),Template:Sfn including Valencian and its standard variety, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} occurs word-initially and after another consonant to the exclusion of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (although there are exceptions). These instances of word-initial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} seem to correspond to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in other dialects, including the standard (Eastern Catalan) on which the orthography is based: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('bedbug'), pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Standard Catalan, is {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in these varietiesTemplate:Sfn (including Standard Valencian).

There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia.Template:Sfn Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'medic').Template:Sfn In Modern Valencian {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} have merged into {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, except in some parts of Southern Valencian.

In Aragonese Catalan (especially Ribagorçan) and Central Valencian (the so called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} accent), voiced fricatives and affricates are missing (i.e. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with only voiceless realizations occurring).Template:Sfn

Fricatives

The labiodental fricative ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) occurs in Balearic,Template:Sfn as well as in Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia.Template:Sfn Everywhere else (including parts of Valencian, like its central dialect),Template:Sfn it has merged with historic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} so that {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} occur in complementary distribution.Template:Sfn

  • In Valencian, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is realized as an approximant Template:IPAblink after continuants: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('advance').Template:Sfn
  • In Majorcan, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are in complementary distribution, with Template:IPAblink occurring before vowels (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'blue' f. vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'blue' m.).
  • In other varieties that have both sounds, they are in contrast before vowels, with neutralization in favor of Template:IPAblink before consonants.Template:Sfn

In Majorcan and Minorcan, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} undergoes total assimilation to a following consonant (just as stops do): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('large puff').Template:Sfn

The dental fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} only appears in Ribagorçan and Lower Aragon, in contrast with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Spanish loanwords with this sound may be replaced by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in both Catalan and Valencian.Template:Sfn

The velar fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (or uvular {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is found in Spanish interferences, especially in Aragon and Southern Valencia.Template:Sfn

The glottal fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found in loanwords and interjections,Template:Sfn although {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually replaced by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in loanwords.Template:Sfn

Sonorants

Laterals

Laterals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). The lateral {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be geminated in careful speech (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'illusion'). A geminated {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may also occur (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'line').Template:Sfn

Nasals

Nasals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). In careful speech, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be geminated (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'unnecessary', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'to store').Template:Sfn

Rhotics

The distribution of the two rhotics {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} closely parallels that of Spanish. Wheeler analyzes intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme:Template:Sfn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics).Template:Sfn

  • Between vowels, the two contrast (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'myrrh' vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'he or she looks'), but they are otherwise in complementary distribution. Template:IPAblink appears in the onset, except in word-initial position ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'donkey'), after {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'lining', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'honour', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Israel'), and in compounds ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'infrared'), where Template:IPAblink is used.
    • Majorcan contrasts {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in word final position, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I speak') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('he or she dies').Template:Sfn
    • In Majorcan final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be assimilated to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. carn {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'meat').Template:Sfn
  • Different dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda, with Western Catalan generally featuring Template:IPAblink and Central Catalan dialects like those of Barcelona or Girona featuring a weakly trilled Template:IPAblink unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case Template:IPAblink appears ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) 'for', but (E) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'for you').Template:Sfn
  • There is free variation in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} word-initially, after {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and in compounds (if {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is preceded by consonant), wherein {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or Template:IPAblink, the latter being similar to English red: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('donkey').
    • In Northern Catalonia and in some accents of Majorcan (e.g. in the town of Sóller), a uvular trill Template:IPAblink or approximant Template:IPAblink can be heard instead of the alveolar trill; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to run').Template:Sfn

Vowels

Vowels of CatalanTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Front   Central         Back      
Close /
Near-close 		Template:IPA link   (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link
(Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)
Close-mid   Template:IPA link   (Template:IPA link)   (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)  (Template:IPA link)   Template:IPA link 
Open-mid  Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link 
Near-open /
Open 		(Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)
Template:IPA link  ~  (Template:IPA link)

Phonetic notes:

  • The vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Template:IPAblink in General Catalan) is further back and open than the Castilian counterpart in North-Western and Central Catalan (i.e. it approaches Template:IPAblink in isolation or in a neutral environment),Template:Sfn it is slightly fronted and closed in Valencian and Ribagorçan ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, also represented as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} due to its lower quality in comparison with the Barcelonan {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), and further fronted and closed ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) in Majorcan.Template:Sfn
    • Stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be further retracted to Template:IPAblink in contact with velar consonants (including the velarized Template:IPAblink), and fronted to Template:IPAblink in contact with palatals.Template:Sfn This is not transcribed in the article.
      • The palatal pronunciation of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may merge with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} by some speakers.Template:Sfn
  • The central vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in stressed position is found in Majorcan and part of Minorcan, in the Balearic Islands.

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  • The open-mid {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are lower Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink (also represented by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in some sources) in Majorcan, Minorcan and Valencian.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is slightly more open and centralized before liquids {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and in monosyllabics.Template:Sfn
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is most often a back vowel. In some dialects (like Majorcan and Southern Valencian) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be unrounded.Template:Sfn
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be realized as mid vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in some cases. This occurs more often with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn
  • The close vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are more open than in Castilian. Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are centralized.Template:Sfn
    • In Valencian and most Balearic dialects {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are further open and centralized, especially in unstressed position {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn
  • Northern Catalan sometimes adds two loan rounded vowels, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink (or Template:IPAblink), from French and Occitan (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'aim', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'leaves').Template:Sfn
    • Similarly French {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are mostly adapted with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), respectively .
  • Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('Sunday').Template:Sfn
  • Vowels can be lengthened in some contexts, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('coordination').Template:Sfn

Stressed vowels

File:Catalan vowel chart.svg
Vowels of Standard Eastern CatalanTemplate:Sfn
File:Valencian vowel chart.svg
Vowels of ValencianTemplate:Sfn

Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes.Template:Sfn However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme (Template:IPAslink); e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('dry, I sit').Template:Sfn The stressed schwa of these dialects corresponds to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Central Catalan and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Western Catalan varieties (that is, Central and Western Catalan dialects differ in their incidence of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. Central Catalan {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. Western Catalan {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('dry, I sit')Template:Sfn - For a list showing the frequency of these vowels, see cases where /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ developed in modern Catalan (Central Standard Catalan) and Valencian (Western Catalan) and cases where /ə/ developed in Balearic Catalan).

Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:

Central CatalanTemplate:Sfn
[Eastern Catalan]
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'bag'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'dry', 'I sit'
Template:IPA link 'fold'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'sic'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'clog'
Template:IPA link 'I am'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'juice'
Other contrast
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
*set Template:IPA link 'seven'
'thirst'
BalearicTemplate:Sfn
[Eastern Catalan]
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'bag'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'dry', 'I sit'
Template:IPA link 'fold'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'sic'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'clog'
Template:IPA link 'I am'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'juice'
Other contrast
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
*{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'seven'
Template:IPA link 'thirst'
Western CatalanTemplate:Sfn &
Alguerese [Eastern]Template:Sfn
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'bag'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'dry', 'I sit'
'fold'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'sic'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'clog'
Template:IPA link 'I am'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'juice'
Other contrast
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'seven'
Template:IPA link 'thirst'
Northern CatalanTemplate:Sfn &
Template:Abbr Alguerese
[Eastern Catalan]
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'bag'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'dry', 'I sit'
'fold'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'sic'
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn-lr 'clog'
'I am'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'juice'
Other contrast
Template:Abbr Template:Abbr Gloss
*{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPA link 'seven'
'thirst'

Template:Notelist-lr

Reduced vowels

In Eastern Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to three : {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (phonetically {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Barcelona); {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:IPA|main}} remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: Alguerese merges {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; and in most areas of Majorca, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can appear in unstressed position (that is, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are usually reduced to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Sfn

In Western Catalan (which includes Valencian and North-Western Catalan), vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:IPA|main}} remain unchanged.Template:Sfn However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:

  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may merge with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before a nasal or sibilant consonant (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'anvil', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'swarm'), in some environments before any consonant (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'earthy'), and in monosyllabic clitics. This sounds almost the same as the Barcelonan open schwa Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfn Likewise, unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may merge into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when in contact with palatal consonants (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'lord').Template:Sfn
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may merge with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before a bilabial consonant (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'covered'), before a stressed syllable with a high vowel (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'rabbit'), in contact with palatal consonants (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'Joseph'), and in monosyllabic clitics.Template:Sfn
  • Besides vowel harmony or vowel assimilation (see below), unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be found sporadically in compounds like {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('seventeen') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) ('nineteen').
General
Eastern CatalanTemplate:Sfn
Term Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn-lrTemplate:Efn-lr 'speech'
lang}} 'back'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'lily'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'iron'
lang}} 'mutual'
Majorcan BalearicTemplate:Sfn
[Eastern Catalan]
Term Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'speech'
lang}} 'back'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'lily'
lang}} Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn-lr 'iron'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'mutual'
General
Western CatalanTemplate:Sfn
Term Template:Abbr Gloss
lang}} Template:IPA link 'speech'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'back'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'lily'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'iron'
lang}} Template:IPA link 'mutual'

Template:Notelist-lr

Vowel harmony

The harmony of Valencian is a clear example of harmony conditioned by a strong element: in some Valencian dialects, word-final post-tonic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when the preceding syllable contains tonic open-mid (or near-open) vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; that is, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} propagate the palatal and labial features, respectively, to the final vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as the examples. The articulatory features extend from a phonologically privileged position—the stressed syllable—to a weak position—an unstressed syllable—a perceptual asymmetry emphasized by the fact that the harmony trigger belongs to the radical while the assimilated segment is normally an inflectional affix.

a)
Example IPA Translation
terra main}} 'Earth, land'
tela main}} 'fabric'
pela main}} 'he or she peels'
perla main}} 'pearl'
b)
Example IPA Translation
cosa main}} 'thing'
mora main}} 'Moor', f.
tova main}} 'soft', f.
vora main}} 'edge, shore'

In the most widespread system of harmony, both open-mid vowels cause assimilation; in other systems, distributed over the harmonic territory quite randomly, only one of the vowels triggers the change. For example, in Cullera only the front vowel causes assimilation, while in Borriana the labial vowel is the only one that allows harmony. However, in both the broadest and the narrowest versions, and even in the sporadic cases of two-way harmony that are presented here, the pattern of strong → weak extension remains constant.

In the harmonic phenomenon just described, articulatory features spread from left to right. However, there is no shortage of assimilations in which the features spread to the left of the prominent position. This occurs in Majorcan when pretonic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is closed to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in words that contain a close tonic vowel, e.g. c{{#invoke:IPA|main}}nill, c{{#invoke:IPA|main}}sí, c{{#invoke:IPA|main}}mú (cf. Template:Harvcoltxt). The change involves the extension of the height feature again in the direction dictated by the strong → weak saliency relationship. Similar closures are documented in various Western languages; among these, Tortosan stands out, where the phenomenon, quite variable and often limited to the elderly, presents the peculiarity that height does not only propagate from tonic vowels, but can also do so from unstressed ones (cfr. Template:Harvcoltxt). In general terms, and in accordance with the data collected by Template:Harvcoltxt (in prep.), a pretonic mid vowel may become close under the influence of a close vowel with the same point of articulation—palatal or labial—in a following syllable; in this way, vowel sequences of the type e...i and o...u become i...i a) and u...u b), respectively. The assimilation of mid vowels to a high vowel of a different point of articulation is possible, but in the sequence e...u it is reduced to some words c), and in the sequence o...i it is usually limited to fossilized cases, so that the disharmonious alternatives in d) reflect only copied pronunciations of the orthography.Template:Sfn

a)
Example IPA Translation
melic main}} 'belly button'
delicat main}} 'delicate'
b)
Example IPA Translation
absolut main}} 'absolute'
bromur main}} 'bromide'
c)
Example IPA Translation
betum main}} 'betumen'
menut main}} 'small'
d)
Example IPA Translation
avorrir main}} 'to bore'
botiga main}} 'shop'

Of the phenomena presented above, the most common and systematic is the change e...i → i...i. As in the examples, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when it precedes a stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Closure can even affect a series of two pretonic vowels. Assimilation never affects stressed vowels and there is also no harmony when {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} do not occupy adjacent syllables.

With certain restrictions, the phenomenon can modify the final vowel of the first element of a compound and proclitic elements such as numerals or unstressed pronouns. In the last case, when the vowel of the pronoun is not strictly adjacent to the syllable that triggers the harmony, there is no assimilation; according to Template:Harvcoltxt (in prep.), the lack of spread is related to the fact that groups of pronouns generate a secondary accent, which would protect the original quality of the vowel.

Template:Harvcoltxt also reports some examples of rightward (regressive) assimilation between weak elements; that is, cases where an unstressed sequence i...e becomes i...i. Harmony to the right is documented only between vowels that are in pretonic position; therefore, the inflectional elements and the post-tonic vowels belonging to the radical are excluded from the change.

General Valencian is another variety in which the extension of features is limited to the main metric foot: in plain words, the final post-tonic, which is part of the main foot, is affected by harmony a); on the other hand, in proparoxytone words (esdrúixoles) the final does not belong to the main foot and is, therefore, beyond the scope of assimilation b). In Valencian from the south of Alicante, the harmony affects an intermediate layer between the main metrical foot and the clitic group: the prosodic word (PPr) (cfr. Template:Harvcoltxt, Template:Harvcoltxt, Template:Harvcoltxt).

Harmony in General Valencian:

a)
Example IPA Translation
afecta main}} 'affects'
granota main}} 'frog'
b)
Example IPA Translation
mèdica main}} 'medic', f.
ròtula main}} 'kneecap'

Harmony from Southern Valencian (Alicante):

a)
Example IPA Translation
afecta main}} 'affects'
granota main}} 'frog'

In the harmony of Valencian, Majorcan and, mostly, Tortosan, the features extend from a strong element to a weak element. In the other possible model, on the other hand, the features are spread in the reverse direction, that is, from positions that are not prominent to positions that are stronger from the perceptual point of view. The trigger for change is in this case a weak element (cf. Template:Harvcoltxt). Central Catalan provides an example of harmony—with considerable geographical and idiolectal variation—conditioned by segments located in weak positions. In this dialect, stressed mid vowels in words from other languages tend to be adapted as open mids, as in the paroxytones in example a), with regular reduction in the unstressed syllable, that is, with the vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in this position. Borrowings also have the peculiarity that they tend to block the neutralization of the unstressed middle vowels e and o, which are realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, respectively. In principle, these two trends should not be mutually exclusive; however, if the post-tonic sound is close-mid, the tonic mids are usually also realized as close, as shown by the plain words in example b), in which the levelling between the two vowels is almost universal. Therefore, the quality of the most prominent vowel is determined by the features of the following vowel, since the appearance of close-mid vowels in tonic position depends on the presence of vowels of the same pitch in the post-tonic syllable.

a)
Example IPA Translation
Creta main}} 'Crete'
euro main}} 'Euro'
Betty main}} 'Betty'
Rodes main}} 'Rhodes'
poli main}} 'cop'
gnosi main}} 'gnosis'
b)
Example IPA Translation
Lesbos main}} 'Lesbos'
euro main}} 'Euro'
Bette main}} 'Bette'
Rodos main}} 'Rodos'
polo main}} 'polo'
Cnossos main}} 'Knossos'

In proparoxytones there is greater variability. In the variety analyzed by Template:Harvcoltxt esdrúixol words (i.e. words with stressed on the antepenultimate syllable) are generally subject to the same restrictions and the presence of a close mid in post-tonic position implies the presence of close mids in tonic position a); the syllabic adjacency between the two vowels is key to harmony, since words like Sòcrates {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or Hèrcules {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are usually presented without assimilation despite the presence of an unreduced post-tonic e. In the variety described by Template:Harvcoltxt, on the other hand, post-tonic vowels do not condition the realization of the tonic vowel in esdrúixols b). On the other hand, and in accordance with the interpretation of the aforementioned authors, the adaptation of tonic vowels as open mids is compatible in all varieties with the appearance of unreduced mid vowels in pre-tonic syllables.

a)
Example IPA Translation
Jespersen main}} 'Jespersen'
Penèlope main}} 'Penelope'
Hölderlin main}} 'Hölderlin'
b)
Example IPA Translation
Jespersen main}} 'Jespersen'
Penèlope main}} 'Penelope'
Sòfocles main}} 'Sophocles'

Other harmony examples in Central Catalan:

Example IPA
Everest main}}
Interpol main}}
Example IPA
OPEC main}}
Repsol main}}
Example IPA
Flaubert main}}
Montessori main}}

Vowels in contact

One of the most unique features of Catalan and Valencian is the treatment of vowels that come into contact within the speech chain. When a word-final vowel meets an initial vowel there are two possible reactions: lengthening (if both vowels are the same)Template:Sfn or weakening/elision of one of the vowels (if they are different).Template:Sfn In general terms, two consecutive vowels diphthongize more frequently in Valencian, North Western Catalan and Alguerese.Template:Sfn Some examples (in Valencian):

Lengthening
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. platges i illots {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('beaches and islets').
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. escrit o oral? {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('written or oral?').
Elision
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. quina hora és? {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('what time is it?').
  • Stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. mà esquerra {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('left hand').
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. agarra el gos {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('take the dog').
  • Stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. què has fet? {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('what have you done?').
  • Unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. este home {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('this man').
  • Stressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, e.g. no els volen {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('they don't want them').

Diphthongs and triphthongs

There are also a number of phonetic diphthongs and triphthongs, all of which begin and/or end in Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfn

Falling diphthongs
IPA word gloss IPA word gloss
main}} lang}} 'water' main}} lang}} 'table'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'children' main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'we will fall'
main}} lang}} 'oleic' main}} lang}} 'foot'
main}} lang}} 'king' main}} lang}} 'his/her'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'Ibiza' main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'euphemism'
main}}Template:Efn-lr (B) lang}} 'bridegroom' main}} lang}} 'nest'
main}} lang}} 'hero' main}}Template:Efn-lr lang}} 'new'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Moses' main}}Template:Efn-lr lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'you are', 'I will move'
main}}Template:Efn-lr lang}} 'cooked' main}} lang}} 'he or she carries'
 
Rising diphthongs
IPA word gloss IPA word gloss
main}} lang}} 'grandpa' main}} lang}} 'glove'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'he or she was doing' main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'watercolour'
main}} lang}} 'Aielo' main}} lang}} 'sequence'
main}} lang}} 'seat' main}} lang}} 'ointment'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'Laietani' main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'question'
main}} lang}} 'penguin'
main}} lang}} 'iodine' main}} lang}} 'payment'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'yoghurt' main}} lang}} 'greasy'
main}} lang}} 'Yugoslav'
 
Triphthongs
IPA word gloss IPA word gloss
main}} lang}} 'old person' main}} lang}} 'Alguaire'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'to observe, look'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'you see' main}}Template:Efn-lr (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'you adequate'
main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) lang}} 'you were saying'

Template:Notelist-lr

In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are only possible in the following contexts:Template:Sfn

  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in word-initial position, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('yoghurt').
  • The semivowel ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) occurs between vowels as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('he or she was doing') or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('they say').
  • In the sequences {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} plus vowel, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('glove'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('quota'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('question'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('penguin'); these exceptional cases even lead some scholarsTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn to hypothesize the existence of rare labiovelar phonemes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn

Processes

There are certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in Majorcan so that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (and contrasts with the unpluralized {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('year') vs. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('years').Template:Sfn

The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).Template:Sfn

Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening (gemination) of voiced affricates: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('medic').Template:Sfn In Barcelona, voiced stops may be fortified (geminated and devoiced); e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'village, people').Template:Sfn

In (Majorcan) Catalan is known the historical process of erasing the vowel (the nucleus) of unstressed final syllables. Template:Harvcoltxt (cited by Template:Harvcoltxt) and Template:Harvcoltxt, have proposed similar theories, in that one or more 'extrasyllabic' final consonants represent the opening of a syllable with null vowel (Burzio) or empty nucleus (Kaye). However, in the case of Catalan, such a structure is fundamentally the one that has been proposed (e.g. in Template:Harvcoltxt) to trigger vowel epenthesis in cases such as the followings:Template:Sfn

  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I wide')
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I ?')
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I stake', Template:Abbr)
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I run')

Assimilations

Nasal Lateral
IPA word gloss IPA word gloss
main}} lang}} 'lowest'
main}} lang}} 'previous' main}} lang}} 'tall' (f. pl.)
main}} lang}} 'to start (up)' main}} lang}} 'decisive'
main}} lang}} 'angle'
main}} lang}} 'he or she bleeds'
main}} lang}} 'week'
main}} lang}} 'rind' main}} lang}} 'Bethlehem'
main}} lang}} 'roll'

Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully assimilate to the following consonant, producing gemination; this is particularly evident before nasal and lateral consonants: e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('week'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('rind'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('roll'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'atlas', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'to submit', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ~ {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'ethnic').Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

There is dialectal variation regarding words with Template:Angbr. While Central and North-Western Catalan tend to innovate with a palatalized pronunciation {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Valencian and Balearic maintain the traditional pronunciation without palatalization {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. Template:Angbr, in most cases (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} vs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'almond').

Valencian dialects (especially Central Valencian) features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'week', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'roll') and learned words might not exhibit either assimilation or elision: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn

Prosody

Stress

Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'compass', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'punishment', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'fool').

Compound words and adverbs formed with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'willingly'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress.Template:Sfn

Phonotactics

The structure of the syllable shows a mandatory nucleus, and the optional presence of a margin before and/or behind the nucleus. Core and margin contrast articulatory due to the fact that the core is emitted with a higher degree of oral opening than the margin. In Catalan and Valencian, the core position is occupied by a vowel and the margin position by one or more consonants. Depending on the number of consonants that make up the margin and the location of the margin in relation to the core, syllabic structures of the type V, CV, VC, CVC, CCV, CCVC, CCVCC, VCC, VCCC, CVCC, CVCCC, etc. are possible. The margin that precedes the nucleus is called "explosive", and the one that follows it, "implosive", syllables can be classified as "open" or "closed" by virtue of the absence or presence of a margin postnuclear, respectively.Template:Sfn

Any consonant, as well as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be an onset. Clusters may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, C{{#invoke:IPA|main}}) or an obstruent plus a liquid. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context).Template:Sfn

Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W)).Template:Sfn In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized.Template:Sfn Although there are exceptions (such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'future'), syllable-final rhotics are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('color') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('bright color').Template:Sfn

In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a homorganic consonant (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification.Template:Sfn

Suffixation examples in Central Eastern and North-Western Catalan varieties
Final gloss Internal gloss
no cluster lang}} main}} 'field' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'peasant'
lang}} main}} 'point' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'tip'
lang}} main}} 'bank' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'banking'
lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'ill' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'illness'
lang}} main}} 'orchard' lang}} main}}(EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'vegetable'
lang}} main}} 'taste' lang}} main}} 'to taste'
cluster lang}} main}} 'snake' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'snake-like'
lang}} main}} 'disk' lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'diskette'
lang}} main}} (EC)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'trailer' lang}} main}} (NE)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (NW)		 'to tow'

When the suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is added to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} it makes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, indicating that the underlying representation is {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is added it makes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The resulting generalization is that this underlying {{#invoke:IPA|main}} will only surface in a morphologically complex word.Template:Sfn Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Sfn

Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('gnome'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('mnemotechnical'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('pneumatic'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('pseudonym'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('pterodactylus').Template:Sfn

Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('all good').Template:Sfn

Word-final fricatives (except {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) / {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) ('huge bus').Template:Sfn

The preposition amb ('with') in Central Catalan is usually pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, but in careful speech when it is before a vowel sound or an {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Dialectal variation

File:Catalan dialects-en.png
Dialectal Map of CatalanTemplate:Sfn
Eastern dialects: Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Western dialects: Template:Legend Template:Legend

The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects: Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, western and eastern dialects; the latter of which only allow Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, and Template:IPAblink to appear in unstressed syllables and include Northern Catalan, Central Catalan, Balearic, and Alguerese. Western dialects, which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include Valencian and North-Western Catalan.Template:Sfn

Regarding consonants, betacism and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects.

Other dialectal features are:

Vowels
  • In a number of dialects unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can merge with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Eastern dialects) or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Western dialects) according to the previous or following vowel (i.e. through assimilation when these vowels are high or dissimilation when they are mid or low). This merger is especially common in words with the prefix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.Template:Sfn
  • In Southern Valencian subvarieties, especially in Alicante Valencian, the diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (phonetically {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Valencian) has become {{#invoke:IPA|main}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('bulls').Template:Sfn
  • In regular speech in both Eastern and Western Catalan dialects, word-initial unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}—{{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}—may be diphthongized to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Eastern Catalan) or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Western Catalan): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (E) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (W) 'to drown, suffocate'.Template:Sfn
Consonants
  • Varying degrees of L-velarization among dialects: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is dark irrespective of position in Balearic and Central Catalan and might tend to vocalization in some cases. In Western varieties like Valencian, this dark l contrasts with a clear l in intervocalic and word-initial position; while in other dialects, like Alguerese or Northern Catalan, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is never velarized in any instance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (also known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "historic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}") in regular speech in most of Majorcan, Northern Catalan and in the historic comarca of Vallès (Barcelona), Latin-derived words that had intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} + yod (-Template:Sc-, -Template:Sc-) or velar + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (-Template:Sc-, -Template:Sc-) developed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'straw') from Latin Template:Sc), rather than {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in the majority of other regions. Accents with traditional ieisme use {{#invoke:IPA|main}} only in words where this sound developed from Latin initial Template:Sc- (as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'moon') or intervocalic -Template:Sc- (as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'she').Template:Sfn
  • In northern and transitional Valencian, word-initial and postconsonantal {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Eastern Catalan {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) alternates with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} intervocalically; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'game', but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'worse', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'crazy' (Standard Valencian {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Standard Catalan {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Sfn
  • In northern Valencia and southern Catalonia {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has merged with realizations of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after a high front vocoid; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('pottery'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('I insist') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to pee'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to leave'). In these varieties {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not found after other voiced consonants, and merges with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after consonants; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('thorn').Template:Sfn
  • In some Valencian dialects (e.g. Northern Valencian), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are auditorily similar such that neutralization may occur in the future.Template:Sfn That is the case of Northern Valencian where {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is depalatalizedTemplate:Clarify to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('box'). Central Valencian words like {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('half') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('ugly') have been transcribed with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} rather than the expected {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and Southern Valencian {{#invoke:IPA|main}} "has been reported to undergo depalatalization without merging with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}",Template:Sfn as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('small steps') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('stroll, avenue')

Historical development

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, Italian, Sardinian, French, Spanish).Template:Sfn

  • Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in other Western Romance languages, except Spanish and Sardinian.Template:Sfn
  • Lenition of voiced stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in Galician and Spanish.Template:Sfn
  • Lack of diphthongization of Latin short {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, as in Galician, Sardinian and Portuguese, and unlike French, Spanish and Italian.Template:Sfn
  • Abundance of diphthongs containing {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.Template:Sfn
  • Abundance of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} occurring at the end of words, as for instance Template:Wikt-lang ("wet") and Template:Wikt-lang ("year"), unlike Spanish,Template:Sfn Portuguese or Italian.

In contrast with many other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters.Template:Sfn Also, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets like {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('male friend') vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('female friend').Template:Sfn

Phonological sample

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1
Original lang}}
Majorcan (Balearic) Catalan IPA main}} ‖
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} | {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Eastern Central Catalan IPA main}} ‖
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} | {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Northern Catalan IPA main}} ‖
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} | {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
North-Western Catalan IPA main}} ‖
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} | {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Valencian IPA main}} ‖
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} | {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

See also

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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Others

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