Pechenegs

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Template:History of the Turks pre-14th century The Pechenegs (Template:IPAc-en) or Patzinaks,<ref group="note">Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Middle Turkic: Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Lang-ka, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Transliteration; Template:Lang-sh-Latn-Cyrl, Template:Langx</ref> also known as Pecheneg Turks,Template:Sfn were a semi-nomadic Turkic people from Central Asia who spoke the Pecheneg language. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Pechenegs controlled much of the steppes of southeast Europe and the Crimean Peninsula. In the 9th century, the Pechenegs began a period of wars against Rus', and for more than two centuries launched raids into the lands of Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars.

Ethnonym

The Pechenegs were mentioned as Bjnak, Bjanak or Bajanak in medieval Arabic and Persian texts, as Be-ča-nag in Classical Tibetan documents, and as Pačanak-i in works written in Georgian.Template:Sfn Anna Komnene and other Byzantine authors referred to them as Patzinakoi or Patzinakitai.Template:Sfn In medieval Latin texts, the Pechenegs were referred to as Pizenaci, Bisseni or Bessi.Template:Sfn East Slavic peoples use the terms Pečenegi or Pečenezi (plural of Pečeneg), while the Poles mention them as Pieczyngowie or Piecinigi.Template:Sfn The Hungarian word for Pecheneg is besenyő; the Romanian term is Pecenegi.Template:Sfn

According to Max Vasmer and some other researchers the ethnonym Pecheneg may have derived from the Old Turkic word for "brother-in-law, relative" (baja, baja-naq or bajinaq; Template:Langx, Kyrgyz: baja, Template:Langx and Template:Langx), implying that it initially referred to an "in-law related clan or tribe".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Peter Golden considers this derivation by no means certain.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In Mahmud Kashgari's 11th-century work Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, the Pechenegs were described as "a Turkic nation living around the country of the Rum" (Rum was the Turkic word for the Eastern Roman Empire or Anatolia) and "a branch of Oghuz Turks"; he subsequently described the Oghuz as being formed of 22 branches, of which the Pecheneg were the 19th.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Pechenegs are mentioned as one of 24 ancient tribes of Oghuzes by 14th-century statesman and historian of Ilkhanate-ruled Iran Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in his work Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh ("Compendium of Chronicles") with the meaning of the ethnonym as "the one who shows eagerness". The 17th-century khan of Khiva and historian Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur mentions the Pechenegs as bechene among 24 ancient tribes of Turkmens (or Oghuzes) in his book Shajara-i Tarākima (Genealogy of the Turkmen) and provides for its meaning as "the one who makes".

Three of the eight Pecheneg "provinces" or clans were collectively known as Kangars.Template:Sfn According to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, the Kangars received this denomination because "they are more valiant and noble than the rest" of the people "and that is what the title Kangar signifies".Template:Sfn<ref>Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 37), p. 171.</ref> Because no Turkic word with a similar meaning is known, Ármin Vámbéry connected the ethnonym to the Kyrgyz words kangir ("agile"), kangirmak ("to go out riding") and kani-kara ("black-blooded"), while Carlile Aylmer Macartney associated it with the Chagatai word gang ("chariot"),Template:Sfn semantically related to the Turkic Gaoche.<ref>Golden, Peter B., "Ethnogenesis in the Tribal Zone: The Shaping of the Türks". From: Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes, ed. C. Hriban, Florilegium magistrorum historiae archaeologicaeque Antiquitatis et Medii Aevi, IX (Bucharest-Brăla, 2011):17-63 / ISBN 978-973-27-2152-0</ref>

Omeljan Pritsak proposed that the name had initially been a composite term (Kängär As, mentioned in Old Turkic texts) deriving from the Tocharian word for stone (kank) and the ethnonym As, suggesting that they were Tocharian-speaking or at least formed a confederation consisting of Tocharian, Eastern Iranian and Bulgaric Turkic elements. Their connection with Eastern Iranian elements is hinted at in the remark of al-Biruni regarding a people that "are of the race of al-Lān and that of al-Ās and their language is a mixture of the languages of Khwarazmians and the Badjanak.".Template:Sfn

If the latter assumption is valid, the Kangars' ethnonym suggests that (East) Iranian elements contributed to the formation of the Pecheneg people but Spinei concedes that Pechenegs were of "a predominantly Turkic character... beyond any doubt".Template:Sfn<ref>Victor Spinei, "Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth CenturyTemplate:Dead link", Template:ISBN / Brill 2009, p.181</ref> This may be mirrored in the Old Rus translation of Josephus Flavius (ed. Meshcherskiy, 454) which adds "the Yas, as is known, descended from the Pecheneg tribe." Based on their fragmentary linguistic remains, scholars view them as Common Turkic-speakers, most probably Kipchak (Németh, followed by Ligeti)<ref>Németh, "Die Inschriften," 16, pp. 50-1; Ligeti, "A magyar nyelv," p.362, 506; and Györffy, "A Besenyők nyelve," p.170-91. Cited in the Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition), Vol.VIII, Leiden 1994, p.289</ref> or Oguz (Baskakov).<ref>Баскаков, Н. А. Тюркские языки, Москва 1960, с. 126-131.</ref> Hammer-Purgstall classifies the Chinese Kangju and Byzantine Kangar as purely Turkic name variants of the Kangly;<ref>Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph, Freiherr von, Geschichte der Goldenen horde in Kiptschak, das ist: der Mongolen in Russland, 1840. digital page n70 or 6/mode/2up.</ref> however, Wang Pu's institutional historical work Tang Huiyao apparently distinguishes the Kang(ju) from the Kangheli (aka Kangly).<ref>Tang Huiyao, "Vol. 72" quote: "康國馬。康居國也。是大宛馬種。形容極大。武德中。康國獻四千匹。今時官馬。猶是其種。……康曷利馬。印宅。" rough translation: "Horses of the Kang nation, which is the Kangju nation. They are a stock of Dayuan horses. In the middle of the Wude era [622 - 626 CE], the Kang nation tributed 4,000 horses. Nowadays, the officials' horses are [probably] of that stock. [...] Kangheli's horses; tamga [resembles] [character] 宅"</ref> Menges saw in Kang-ar-as the plural-suffix -as, and Klyashtorny the Turkic numerus collectivus -ar-, -er-.<ref>K. H. Menges, Altaic elements, s. 101-104. (cited PDF)</ref><ref>S.G. Klyaštornij, Drevnetyurkskie Runiçeskie Pamyatniki Kak Istoçnik Po Istorii Sredney Azii, Moscow 1964, p.163-167 (cited PDF)</ref>

Language

Template:Main Mahmud al-Kashgari, an 11th-century man of letters who specialized in Turkic dialects, argued that the language spoken by the Pechenegs was a variant of the Cuman and Oghuz idioms.Template:Sfn He suggested that foreign influences on the Pechenegs gave rise to phonetic differences between their tongue and the idiom spoken by other Turkic peoples.Template:Sfn Anna Komnene likewise stated that the Pechenegs and the Cumans shared a common language.Template:Sfn Although the Pecheneg language itself died out centuries ago,Template:Sfn the names of the Pecheneg "provinces" recorded by Constantine Porphyrogenitus prove that the Pechenegs spoke a Turkic language.Template:Sfn The Pechenegs are thought to have belonged to the Oghuz branch of the Turkic family, but their language is poorly documented and therefore difficult to further classify.<ref>Баскаков, Н. А. Тюркские языки, Москва 1960, с. 126-131.</ref>

Composition

Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos lists eight Pecheneg tribal groupings, four on each side of the Dnieper river, reflecting the bipartite left-right Turkic organization. These eight tribes were, in turn, divided into 40 sub-tribes, probably clans. Constantine VII also records the names of eight former tribal leaders who had been leading the Pechenegs when they were expelled by the Khazars and Oghuzes. Golden, following Németh and Ligeti, proposes that each tribal name consists of two parts: the first part being an equine coat color, the other the tribal ruler's title.Template:Sfn

The Erdim, Čur, and Yula tribes formed the Qangar/Kenger (Greek: Καγγαρ) and were deemed "more valiant and noble than the rest".

Tribal Compositions
Transcribed tribal name Reconstructed tribal name Meaning Location Transcribed leader's name Reconstructed leader's name
Ιαβδι-ερτί(μ) *YavdıTemplate:Efn-ErdimTemplate:Efn Tribe of the ErdemTemplate:Efn with brilliant, shining horses Dniepr's west bank Βαϊτζαν *BayTemplate:Efn-ča
Κουαρτζι-τζούρ *KüerčiTemplate:Efn-Čur Tribe of the Čur with bluish horses Dniepr's east bank Κούελ *KüğelTemplate:Efn
Χαβουξιν-γυλά *Qabuqšın-Yula or *Khabuži/Kapuži-JulaTemplate:Efn Tribe of the Yula with bark-colored horses Dniepr's west bank Κουρκοῡται *QorqutaiTemplate:Efn
Συρου-κουλπέη *Suru-Kül-Bey Tribe of the Kül-Bey with grayish horses Dniepr's east bank Ιπαόν *Ipa / *Iba (?),Template:Efn
Χαρα-βοη *Qara-Bay Tribe of the Bey with black horses Dniepr's west bank Καϊδούμ *QaydumTemplate:Efn
Βορο-ταλμάτ *Boru-Tolmač Tribe of the TolmačTemplate:Efn with grayish horses Dniepr's east bank Κώσταν *QostaTemplate:Efn
Γιαζι-χοπὸν *Yazı-Qap(ğ)an Tribe of the Qap(ğ)an with dark-brown horses Dniepr's west bank Γιαζή *YazıTemplate:Efn
Βουλα-τζοπόν *Bula-ČopanTemplate:Efn Tribe of the Čopan with piebald horses Dniepr's east bank Βατᾱν *Bata / *BotaTemplate:Efn

Notes

Template:Notelist

History

Origins and area

According to Omeljan Pritsak, the Pechenegs are descendants of the ancient Kangars who originate from Tashkent. The Orkhon inscriptions listed the Kangars among the subject peoples of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Pritsak says that the Pechenegs' homeland was located between the Aral Sea and the middle course of the Syr Darya along the important trade routes connecting Central Asia with Eastern Europe, and associates them with Kangars.Template:Sfn

According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus writing in c. 950, the Pecheneg realm, or Patzinakia stretched west as far as the Siret River (or possibly the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and was four days' journey from "Tourkias" (i.e. Hungary).Template:Blockquote

File:Khazarfall1.png
The Pontic steppes, Template:Circa

Paul Pelliot originated the proposal that the Book of SuiTemplate:Mdasha 7th-century Chinese workTemplate:Mdashpreserved the earliest record on the Pechenegs.Template:Sfn The book mentioned a people named Bĕirù, who had settled near the Ēnqū and Alan peoples (identified as Onogurs and Alans, respectively), to the east of Fulin (or the Eastern Roman Empire).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Victor Spinei emphasizes that the Pechenegs' association with the Bĕirù is "uncertain".Template:Sfn He proposes that an 8th-century Uyghur envoy's report, which survives in Tibetan translation,Template:Sfn contains the first certain reference to the Pechenegs.Template:Sfn The report recorded an armed conflict between the Be-ča-nag and the Hor (Uyghurs or Oghuz Turks) peoples in the region of the Syr Darya.Template:Sfn<ref name="Venturi">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Ibn Khordadbeh (c. 820 – 912 CE), Mahmud al-Kashgari (11th century), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), and many other Muslim scholars agree that the Pechenegs belonged to the Turkic peoples.Template:Sfn The Russian Primary Chronicle stated that the "Torkmens, Pechenegs, Torks, and Polovcians" descended from "the godless sons of Ishmael, who had been sent as a chastisement to the Christians".Template:Sfn<ref>Russian Primary Chronicle (year 6604/1096), p. 184)</ref>

Westward migration

File:Europe mediterranean 1097.jpg
Europe 1097

The Turkic Khaganate collapsed in 744, which gave rise to a series of intertribal confrontations in the Eurasian steppes.Template:Sfn The Karluks attacked the Oghuz Turks, forcing them to launch a westward migration towards the Pechenegs' lands.Template:Sfn The Uyghur envoy's report testifies that the Oghuz and Pecheneg waged war against each other in the 8th century, most probably for the control of trade routes.Template:Sfn The Oghuz allied with the Karluks and Kimaks and defeated the Pechenegs and their allies in a battle near the Aral Sea before 850, according to the 10th-century scholar Al-Masudi.Template:Sfn Most Pechenegs then migrated towards the Volga River, but some groups were forced to join the Oghuz. The latter formed the 19th tribe of the Oghuz tribal federation in the 11th century.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The Pechenegs who left their homeland settled between the Ural and the Volga rivers. According to Gardizi and other Muslim scholars who based their works on 9th-century sources, the Pechenegs' new territory was quite large, with a 30-day-walk extension, and were bordered by the Cumans, Khazars, Oghuz Turks and Slavs.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

File:Beçene Türkmen Tagmasy Abyl Gazy.jpg
Tamga of Pecheneg tribe as per Abul-Ghazi's «Genealogy of Turkmens»

The same sources also narrate that the Pechenegs made regular raids against their neighbors, in particular against the Khazars and their vassals, the Burtas, and sold their captives into slavery.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Khazars allied with the Oghuz against the Pechenegs and attacked them from two directions. Outnumbered by the enemy, the Pechenegs were forced into a new westward migration.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn They marched across the Khazar Khaganate, invaded the dwelling places of the Hungarians, and expelled them from the lands along the Kuban River and the upper course of the river Donets.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn There is no consensual date for this second migration of the Pechenegs: Pritsak argues that it took place around 830,Template:Sfn but Kristó suggests that it could hardly have occurred before the 850s.Template:Sfn

The Pechenegs settled along the rivers Donets and Kuban.Template:Sfn It is plausible that the distinction between the "Turkic Pechenegs" and "Khazar Pechenegs" mentioned in the 10th-century Hudud al-'alam had its origin in this period.Template:Sfn The Hudud al-'AlamTemplate:Mdasha late 10th-century Persian geographyTemplate:Mdashdistinguished two Pecheneg groups, referring to those who lived along the Donets as "Turkic Pechenegs", and to those along the Kuban as "Khazarian Pechenegs".Template:Sfn Spinei proposes that the latter denomination most probably refers to Pecheneg groups accepting Khazar suzerainty, implies that some Pecheneg tribes had been forced to acknowledge the Khazars supremacy.Template:Sfn

In addition to these two branches, a third group of Pechenegs existed in this period: Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Ibn Fadlan mention that those who decided not to leave their homeland were incorporated into the Oghuz federation of Turkic tribes.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Template:Blockquote

However, it is uncertain whether this group's formation is connected to the Pechenegs' first or second migration (as it is proposed by Pritsak and Golden, respectively).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Mahmud al-Kashgari, one of the Üçok clans of the Oghuz TurksTemplate:Sfn was still formed by Pechenegs in the 1060s.Template:Sfn

Alliance with Byzantium

File:63-manasses-chronicle.jpg
Sviatoslav enters Bulgaria with Pecheneg allies,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> from the Constantine Manasses Chronicle.

In the 9th century, the Byzantines allied with the Pechenegs, using them to fend off other, more dangerous, tribes such as Kievan Rus' and the Magyars (Hungarians).

The Uzes, another Turkic steppe people, eventually expelled the Pechenegs from their homeland; in the process, they also seized most of their livestock and other goods. An alliance of Oghuz, Kimeks, and Karluks was also pressing the Pechenegs, but another group, the Samanids, defeated that alliance. Driven further west by the Khazars and Cumans by 889, the Pechenegs in turn drove the Magyars west of the Dnieper River by 892.

Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria employed the Pechenegs to help fend off the Magyars. The Pechenegs were so successful that they drove out the Magyars remaining in Etelköz and the Pontic steppes, forcing them westward in Battle of Southern Buh and making them leave Etelköz forever and settle in Pannonia where they later founded the Hungarian state.<ref>Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 304.</ref><ref name="bakalov22">Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".</ref><ref name="delev922">Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.</ref>

Late history and decline

By the 9th and 10th centuries, Pechenegs controlled much of the steppes of southeast Europe and the Crimean Peninsula. Although an important factor in the region at the time, like most nomadic tribes, their concept of statecraft failed to go beyond random attacks on neighbours and spells as mercenaries for other powers.

In the 9th century, the Pechenegs began a period of wars against Kievan Rus'. For more than two centuries, they had launched raids into the lands of Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars (like the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev, reported in the Primary Chronicle). The Pecheneg wars against Kievan Rus' caused the Slavs from Walachian territories to gradually migrate north of the Dniestr in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref>V. Klyuchevsky, The course of Russian history. v.1: "Myslʹ.1987, Template:ISBN</ref> Rus'/Pecheneg temporary military alliances also occurred however, as during the Byzantine campaign in 943 led by Igor.<ref group="note">Ibn Haukal describes the Pechenegs as the long-standing allies of the Rus', whom they invariably accompanied during the 10th century Caspian expeditions.</ref>

File:Andrey Ivanov 005.jpg
The heroic deed of the young Kyivite during the siege of Kyiv by the Pechenegs in 968. Andrey Ivanovich Ivanov.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In 968 the Pechenegs attacked and besieged Kiev; some joined the Prince of Kiev, Sviatoslav I, in his Byzantine campaign of 970–971, though eventually they ambushed and killed the Kievan prince in 972. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Pecheneg Khan Kurya made a chalice from Sviatoslav's skull, in accordance with the custom of steppe nomads. The fortunes of the Rus'-Pecheneg confrontation swung during the reign of Vladimir I of Kiev (990–995), who founded the town of Pereyaslav upon the site of his victory over the Pechenegs,<ref group="note">The chronicler explains the town's name, derived from the Slavic word for "retake", was inspired by Vladimir "retaking" military glory from the Pechenegs.</ref> followed by the defeat of the Pechenegs during the reign of Yaroslav I the Wise in 1036. Shortly thereafter, other nomadic peoples replaced the weakened Pechenegs in the Pontic steppe: the Cumans and the Torks. According to Mykhailo Hrushevsky (History of Ukraine-Ruthenia), after its defeat near Kiev, the Pecheneg Horde moved towards the Danube, crossed the river, and disappeared out of the Pontic steppes.

Pecheneg mercenaries served under the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> After centuries of fighting involving all their neighbours—the Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria, Kievan Rus', Khazaria, and the Magyars—the Pechenegs were annihilated as an independent force in 1091 at the Battle of Levounion by a combined Byzantine and Cuman army under Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Alexios I recruited the defeated Pechenegs, whom he settled in the district of Moglena (today in Macedonia) into a tagma "of the Moglena Pechenegs".<ref>Template:Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204</ref> Attacked again in 1094 by the Cumans, many Pechenegs were slain or absorbed. The Byzantines defeated the Pechenegs again at the Battle of Beroia in 1122, on the territory of modern-day Bulgaria. With time, the Pechenegs south of the Danube lost their national identity and became fully assimilated, mostly with Romanians and Bulgarians. Significant communities settled in the Hungarian kingdom, around 150 villages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1105 or 1106, Pecheneg troops were deployed to Italy in an unsuccessful effort to capture Otranto and prevent Bohemond's invasion of the Byzantine Balkans. Anna Komnene erroneously reports that Bohemond dragged Pecheneg prisoners in chains before Pope Paschal II to gain support for his invasion, although the respective itineraries of the two men clearly indicate that they did not meet on this occasion.Template:Sfn According to the Byzantine historian John Kinnamos, the Pechenegs fought as mercenaries for the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in southern Italy against the Norman king of Sicily, William the Bad.<ref>Kinnamos, IV, 4, p. 143</ref> A group of Pechenegs was present at the Battle of Andria in 1155.<ref>Chalandon 1907</ref>

Template:Continental Asia in 1000 CE The Pechenegs as a group were last mentioned in 1168 as members of Turkic tribes known in the chronicles as the "Chorni Klobuky (Black Hats)".<ref>Ivan Katchanovski, Zenon E. Kohut, Bohdan Y. Nebesio, Myroslav Yurkevich, Historical Dictionary of Ukraine, Scarecrow Press, 2013, p. 439.</ref> The Pecheneg population of Hungary was likely decimated by the Mongol invasion of Hungary, but names of Pecheneg origin continue to be reported in official documents. The title of "Comes Bissenorum" (Count of the Pechenegs) lasted for at least another 200 years.

In 15th-century Hungary, some people adopted the surname Besenyö (Hungarian for "Pecheneg");Template:Citation needed they were most numerous in the county of Tolna. One of the earliest introductions of Islam into Eastern Europe came about through the work of an early 11th-century Muslim prisoner who was captured by the Byzantines. The Muslim prisoner was brought into the Besenyő territory of the Pechenegs, where he taught and converted individuals to Islam.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the late 12th century, Abu Hamid al-Gharnati referred to Hungarian Pechenegs – probably Muslims – living disguised as Christians. There is a village in southeast Serbia called Pečenjevce that was founded by Pechenegs. After the war with Byzantium, the remnants of the tribes found refuge in the area and settled there.<ref>Studies on Pechenegs Dr. AKDES KURAT</ref><ref>ATLAS NATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES ISSN 2602-4128 TWO FRIEND PEOPLE IN THE NORTH OF THE BLACK SEA: ON THE RELATIONS OF THE PECHENEKS AND THE KUMAN-KIPCHAKS</ref><ref>T.R. FIRAT UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY THE RELATIONS OF PEÇENEK AND KIPÇAKS WITH THE BYZANTINE STATE MASTER'S THESIS</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Settlements bearing the name Pecheneg

Leaders

Descendants of the Pechenegs

Some historians believe that the Pechenegs were the ancestors of the modern Karakalpaks. According to Askerbay Turganbayev, there is a scientific hypothesis suggesting that after their defeat in the 11th–12th centuries, some Pechenegs migrated to the Aral region, where they contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Karakalpaks. He notes similarities in traditions, nomadic lifestyles, and some linguistic elements between the Karakalpaks and earlier Turkic peoples, including the Pechenegs.<ref name="Turganbayev2023">Askerbay Turganbayev. Historical Science on the Pechenegs as the Ancestors of the Karakalpaks. // Finland International Scientific Journal of Education, Social Science & Humanities. — 23 April 2023. — Vol. 11, Iss. 4. — P. 1517–1525. — ISSN 2945-4492.</ref>

Public figure Olzhas Suleimenov suggested that the name "Pecheneg" derives from the word Pajanak ("in-law"), indicating kinship ties between Pecheneg khagans and Russian princes. This word has parallels in Turkic languages, including Karakalpak, where baja or boja also means "in-law."<ref name="Suleimenov1985">Olzhas Suleimenov. Az i Ya. — Almaty: Zhazushy, 1985.</ref>

The 14th-century Persian historian Rashid al-Din recorded that one of the Kipchak tribes was called "Kara-Borkli" ("Black Hats"), which may be linked to the ethnonym "Karakalpaks." Some scholars suggest that this tribe was among the remnants of the Pechenegs that assimilated into the Kipchak and later Karakalpak groups.<ref name="Rashidaddin">Rashid al-Din. Jami' al-Tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles). — Moscow: Nauka, 1965.</ref>

Archaeological studies in the deltas of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers have uncovered traces of Saka-Massagetae tribes, which may have been the ancestors of the Karakalpaks. The consolidation of Pecheneg tribes in the southeastern Aral region in the 9th–11th centuries is believed to have played a role in Karakalpak ethnogenesis.<ref name="AralArchaeology">A. Nurmukhamedov. Archaeological Findings in the Aral Region. — Nukus: Karakalpakstan, 2001.</ref>

See also

Notes

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Footnotes

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References

Primary sources

  • Anna Comnena: The Alexiad (Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books. Template:ISBN.
  • Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation by Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. Template:ISBN.

Secondary sources

Further reading

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Template:Turkic topics Template:Turkic peoples Template:Oghuz tribes

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