H-dropping
H-dropping or aitch-dropping is the deletion of the voiceless glottal fricative or "H-sound", Template:IPA. The phenomenon is common in many dialects of English, and is also found in certain other languages, either as a purely historical development or as a contemporary difference between dialects. Although common in most regions of England and in some other English-speaking countries, and linguistically speaking a neutral evolution in languages, H-dropping is often stigmatized as a sign of careless or uneducated speech, due to its strong association with the lower class.
The reverse phenomenon, H-insertion or H-adding, is found in certain situations, sometimes as an allophone or hypercorrection by H-dropping speakers, and sometimes as a spelling pronunciation or out of perceived etymological correctness. A particular example of this is the spread of 'haitch' for 'aitch'.
In English
Historical /h/-loss
In Old English phonology, the sounds Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA (described respectively as glottal, velar and palatal voiceless fricatives) are taken to be allophones of a single phoneme Template:IPA. This phoneme occurred at the start of syllables, alone or clustered with an approximant, and in coda position. The Template:IPA sound appeared in most onsets (except those with an Template:IPA and Template:IPA cluster, which had Template:IPA) and the other two allophones in syllable codas (Template:IPA after back vowels and Template:IPA after front vowels).
The instances of Template:IPA in coda position were lost during the Middle English and Early Modern English periods, although they are still reflected in the spelling of words such as taught (now pronounced like taut) and weight (now pronounced in most accents like wait). Most of the initial clusters involving Template:IPA also disappeared (see H-cluster reductions). As a result, in the standard varieties of Modern English, the only position in which Template:IPA can occur is at the start of a syllable, either alone (as in hat, house, behind, etc.), in the cluster Template:IPA (as in huge), or (for a minority of speakers) in the cluster Template:IPA (as in whine if pronounced differently from wine). The usual realizations of the latter two clusters are Template:IPA and Template:IPA (see English phonology).
Contemporary H-dropping
The phenomenon of H-dropping considered as a feature of contemporary English is the omission, in certain accents and dialects, of this syllable-initial Template:IPA, either alone or in the cluster Template:IPA. (For the cluster Template:IPA and its reduction, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.)
Description
H-dropping, in certain accents and dialects of Modern English, causes words like harm, heat, home and behind to be pronounced arm, eat, ome and be-ind (though in some dialects an [h] may appear in behind to prevent hiatus – see below).
Cases of H-dropping occur in all English dialects in the weak forms of function words like he, him, her, his, had, and have. The pronoun it is a product of historical H-dropping – the older hit survives as an emphatic form in a few dialects such as Southern American English, and in the Scots language.<ref>David D. Murison, The Guid Scots Tongue, Blackwodd 1977, p. 39.</ref> Because the Template:IPA of unstressed have is usually dropped, the word is usually pronounced Template:IPA in phrases like should have, would have, and could have. These can be spelled out in informal writing as "should've", "would've", and "could've". Because Template:IPA is also the weak form of the word of, these words are often erroneously spelled as should of, would of and could of.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
History
There is evidence of h-dropping in texts from the 13th century and later. It may originally have arisen through contact with the Norman language, where h-dropping also occurred. Puns which rely on the possible omission of the Template:IPA sound can be found in works by William Shakespeare and in other Elizabethan era dramas. It is suggested that the phenomenon probably spread from the middle to the lower orders of society, first taking hold in urban centers. It started to become stigmatized, being seen as a sign of poor education, in the 16th or 17th century.<ref>Milroy, J., "On the Sociolinguistic History of H-dropping in English", in Current topics in English historical linguistics, Odense UP, 1983.</ref><ref>Milroy, L., Authority in Language: Investigating Standard English, Routledge 2002, p. 17.</ref>
Geographical distribution
H-dropping occurs (variably) in most of the dialects of the English language in England and Welsh English, including Cockney, West Country English, West Midlands English (including Brummie), East Midlands English, most of northern England (including Yorkshire and Lancashire), and Cardiff English.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is not generally found in Scottish English and Irish English. It is also typically absent in certain regions of England and Wales, including Northumberland, East Anglia and parts of North and West Wales.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
H-dropping also occurs in some Jamaican English, and perhaps in other Caribbean English (including some of The Bahamas). It is not generally found in North American English, although it has been reported in Newfoundland (outside the Avalon Peninsula).<ref>Wells, J.C., Accents of English, CUP 1982, pp. 564, 568–69, 589, 594, 622.</ref> However, dropping of /h/ from the cluster /hj/ (so that human is pronounced Template:IPA) is found in some American dialects, as well as in parts of Ireland – see reduction of /hj/.
Social distribution and stigmatization
H-dropping, in the countries and regions in which it is prevalent, occurs mainly in working-class accents. Studies have shown it to be significantly more frequent in lower than in higher social groups. It is not a feature of RP (the prestige accent of England), or even of "Near-RP", a variant of RP that includes some regional features.<ref>Wells (1982), pp. 254, 300.</ref> This does not always apply, however, to the dropping of /h/ in weak forms of words like his and her.
H-dropping in English is widely stigmatized, being perceived as a sign of poor or uneducated speech, and discouraged by schoolteachers. John Wells writes that it seems to be "the single most powerful pronunciation shibboleth in England."<ref>Wells (1982), p. 254</ref>
Use and status of the H-sound in H-dropping dialects
In fully H-dropping dialects, that is, in dialects without a phonemic Template:IPA, the sound Template:IPA may still occur but with uses other than distinguishing words. An epenthetic Template:IPA may be used to avoid hiatus, so that for example the egg is pronounced the hegg. It may also be used when any vowel-initial word is emphasized, so that horse Template:IPA (assuming the dialect is also non-rhotic) and ass Template:IPA may be pronounced Template:IPA and Template:IPA in emphatic utterances. That is, Template:IPA has become an allophone of the zero onset in these dialects.
For many H-dropping speakers, however, a phonological Template:IPA appears to be present, even if it is not usually realized – that is, they know which words "should" have an Template:IPA, and have a greater tendency to pronounce an [h] in those words than in other words beginning with a vowel. Insertion of [h] may occur as a means of emphasis, as noted above, and also as a response to the formality of a situation.<ref>Wells (1982), p. 322.</ref> Sandhi phenomena may also indicate a speaker's awareness of the presence of an Template:IPA – for example, some speakers might say "a edge" (rather than "an edge") for a hedge, and might omit the linking R before an initial vowel resulting from a dropped H.
It is likely that the phonemic system of children in H-dropping areas lacks a /h/ entirely, but that social and educational pressures lead to the incorporation of an (inconsistently realized) /h/ into the system by the time of adulthood.<ref>Wells (1982), p. 254.</ref>
H-insertion
The opposite of H-dropping, called H-insertion or H-adding, sometimes occurs as a hypercorrection in English accents that typically drop H. It is commonly noted in literature from late Victorian times to the early 20th century that some lower-class people consistently drop h in words that should have it, while adding h to words that should not have it. An example from the musical My Fair Lady is, "In 'Artford, 'Ereford, and 'Ampshire, 'urricanes 'ardly hever 'appen".<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Another is in C. S. Lewis's The Magician's Nephew: "Three cheers for the Hempress of Colney 'Atch". In practice, however, it would appear that h-adding is more of a stylistic prosodic effect, being found in highly emphasized words, regardless of whether those words are h-initial or vowel-initial in the standard language.
Some English words borrowed from French may begin with the letter Template:Angbr but not with the sound Template:IPA. Examples include heir, and, in many regional pronunciations, hour, hono(u)r and honest. In some cases, spelling pronunciation has introduced the sound Template:IPA into such words, as in humble, human, hotel and (for most speakers) historic. Spelling pronunciation has also added Template:IPA to the British English pronunciation of herb, Template:IPA, while American English retains the older pronunciation Template:IPA. Etymology may also serve as a motivation for H-addition, as in the words horrible, habit and harmony: these were borrowed into Middle English from French without an Template:IPA (orrible, abit, armonie), but as all three derive from Latin words with an Template:IPA, they would later acquired an Template:IPA in English as an etymological "correction".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The name of the letter H itself, "aitch", is subject to H-insertion in some dialects, where it is pronounced "haitch". (In Hiberno-English, "haitch" is frequent amongst Roman Catholics, consistent with their not being H-dropping dialects and distinguishing them from their Protestant neighbours.)Template:Citation needed Various dialects of Newfoundland English exhibit the same pattern.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
List of homophones resulting from H-dropping
The following is a list of some pairs of English words which may become homophones when H-dropping occurs. (To view the list, click "show".) See also the list of H-dropping homophones in Wiktionary.
In other languages
Template:Unreferenced section Processes of H-dropping have occurred in various languages at certain times, and in some cases, they remain as distinguishing features between dialects, as in English. Some Dutch dialects, especially the southern ones, feature H-dropping. The dialects of Zeeland, West and East Flanders, most of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant, and the west of North Brabant have lost /h/ as a phonemic consonant but use [h] to avoid hiatus and to signal emphasis, much as in the H-dropping dialects of English.<ref>Template:OED</ref> H-dropping is also found in some North Germanic languages, for instance Elfdalian and the dialect of Roslagen, where it is found already in Old East Norse. Also the Low Saxon speaking area around Zwolle, Kampen, Steenwijk, Meppel and Hoogeveen have h-dropping, the former island of Urk has it too as do some regions in Groningen.
When dealing with Greek, this process is called psilosis. The phoneme Template:IPA in Ancient Greek of Classical Athens, occurring predominantly at the beginnings of words and originally written with the letter H and later as a rough breathing, had been lost by that period in most Ionic dialects and from all Greek dialects during the late Hellenistic/Roman era. Hence it not a phoneme of Modern Greek being approximated in foreign loanwords by Template:IPAslink or Template:IPAslink (or Template:IPA).
The phoneme Template:IPA was lost in Vulgar Latin, the ancestor of the modern Romance languages. Already in the Imperial period, there is attested evidence for early h-loss. French, Spanish, and Romanian acquired a new initial Template:IPA in medieval times, but they were later lost in the first two languages in a "second round" of H-dropping. Some varieties of Spanish have yet again acquired Template:IPA from Template:IPA (from earlier retraction of Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink), which as of now is stable. Brazilian Portuguese acquired Template:IPA from Template:IPAslink which is now the stable form in most of the country, though it has other allophones.
It is hypothesized in the laryngeal theory that the loss of Template:IPA or similar sounds played a role in the early development of the Indo-European languages.
In Maltese, Template:IPA existed as a phoneme until the 19th century. It was then lost in most positions, sometimes lengthening the adjacent vowel. Chiefly word-finally it was merged with Template:IPAslink. The latter phoneme, in turn, may now be pronounced Template:IPA by some speakers, chiefly in the syllable onset.
Modern Hebrew is in the process of losing Template:IPA; the phoneme is either replaced by Template:IPA (word-initially) or entirely absent (in all other positions) in the speech of contemporary young speakers.
In Tagalog, Template:IPA is sometimes elided into an immediately succeeding vowel, such as huwag from Template:IPA to Template:IPA and sabihin from Template:IPA to Template:IPA.
Many dialects of Persian spoken in Afghanistan (i.e. Dari) do not realize the phoneme Template:IPA, except in high-prestige literary words or in hyper formal speech. The deletion of the phoneme Template:IPA may cause a preceding short vowel to be reinterpreted as a long vowel, likely due to phonological rules in Dari prohibiting short vowels and long vowels from being equal in length.<ref>Rees, Daniel A. "Towards Proto-Persian". Georgetown University 2008</ref> For example, Template:Lang (qahr Template:IPA, "anger") is often realized as qār Template:IPA (as if it was written like Template:Lang), and Template:Lang (fahmīdan Template:IPA, to understand) is often realized as Template:Lang (fāmīdan /fɑːmiːdan/). Between vowels, the phoneme Template:IPA may be replaced by a glide (Template:IPA or Template:IPA) resulting in words like Template:Lang (x(w)āhiš Template:IPA, "I want") being realized as Template:Lang (xāyš Template:IPA) or, in dialects that no longer distinguish āy and ay, this may be further reduced to xayš Template:IPA (as if spelt Template:Lang).
The modern Javanese language typically does not have initial and intervocalic Template:IPA in its native words, except between the same vowels. For instance, in modern Javanese, the word for "rain" is udan, from Old Javanese hudan, which ultimately comes from Proto-Austronesian *quzaN. The letter "ꦲ" in traditional Javanese script, which had the value Template:IPA in Old Javanese is now used in most cases to represent Template:IPA and Template:IPA in its base form. In modern Javanese, initial and intervocalic Template:IPA appears only in loanwords from Indonesian and English. Since the Javanese people have been exposed to Dutch for far longer than they are with Indonesian or standard literary Malay (which only started somewhere after 1900 and amplified after 1945, excluding Surinamese Javanese), many of the words borrowed from Dutch have also lost the phoneme, such as andhuk Template:IPA "towel" from Dutch handdoek.